Summary
In this work, a strong cyclone event is simulated by the general circulation model (GCM) ECHAM4 for studying the representation of weather systems in a climate model. The system developed along the East Coast of the U.S.A. between the 12th and 14th of March 1993.
The GCM simulation was started from climatological conditions and was continuously forced to the analyzed state by a thermodynamical adjustment based on the Newtonian relaxation technique (nudging). Relaxation terms for vorticity, divergence, temperature, and the logarithm of surface pressure were added at each model level and time step. The necessary forcing files were calculated from the ECMWF re-analysis (ERA15). No nudging terms were added for the components of the water cycle.
Using this forcing, the model was able to reproduce the synoptic-scale features and its temporal development realistically after a spin-up period. This is true even for quantities that are not adjusted to the analysis (e.g., humidity). Detailed comparisons of the model simulations with available observations and the forcing ERA15 were performed for the cyclone case. Systematic errors were detected in the simulation of the thermodynamic state of the atmosphere, which can be traced back to deficiencies in model parametrizations. Differences in the representation of the surface fluxes lead to systematic deviations in near-surface temperature and wind fields. The general situation is very similar in both model representations. Errors were detected in the simulation of the convective boundary layer behind the cold front. The observed strong convective activity is missed both by the adjusted ECHAM4 simulation and ERA15. This is most likely caused by weaknesses in the cloud and convection schemes or by a too strong downdraft compensating the frontal lifting and suppressing the vertical transport of moisture from the boundary layer to higher levels. This work demonstrates for the investigated case the value of simulating single weather events in climate models for validating model physics.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
L Bengtsson M Botzet M Esch (1995) ArticleTitleSimulation of hurricane-type vortices in a general circulation model Tellus 47A 175–196
L Bengtsson KI Hodges (2005) ArticleTitleOn the impact of humidity observations in numerical weather prediction Tellus 57A 701–708
J Boyle D Williamson R Cederwall M Fiorino J Hnilo J Olson T Phillips G Potter S Xie (2005) ArticleTitleDiagnosis of community atmospheric model 2 (CAM2) in numerical weather forecast configuration at atmospheric radiation measurement sites J Geophys Res 110 D15S15 Occurrence Handle10.1029/2004JD005042
PM Caplan (1995) ArticleTitleThe 12–14 March 1993 superstorm: performance of the NMC global medium range model Bull Am Meteor Soc 76 201–212 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0477(1995)076<0201:TMSPOT>2.0.CO;2
C-T Chen E Roeckner (1997) ArticleTitleCloud simulations with the Max Planck institute for meteorology general circulation model ECHAM4 and comparison with observations J Geophys Res 102 9325–9350
JJ Cione S Raman LJ Pietrafesa (1993) ArticleTitleThe effect of Gulf stream-induced baroclinicity on US east coast winter cyclones Mon Wea Rev 121 421–430 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(1993)121<0421:TEOGSI>2.0.CO;2
MJ Dickinson LF Bosart WE Bracken GJ Hakim DM Schultz MA Bredrick KR Tyle (1997) ArticleTitleThe March 1993 superstorm cyclogenesis: incipient phase, synoptic- and convective-scale flow interaction and model performance Mon Wea Rev 125 3041–3072 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(1997)125<3041:TMSCIP>2.0.CO;2
Doms G, Förstner J, Heise E, Herzog HJ, Raschendorfer M, Reinhardt T, Vogel G (2005) A description of the non-hydrostatic regional model LM. Part II: Physical parameterizations. Technical report, German Weather Service, Offenbach, Germany
Doms G, Gassmann A, Heise E, Raschendorfer M, Schraff C, Schrodin R (2001) Parameterization issues in the non-hydrostatic NWP-model LM. In: ECMWF seminar proceedings: key issues in the parameterization of subgrid physical processes. 3–7 September 2001, European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, Reading, UK, pp. 202–252
RM Errico K Raeder M Ehrendorfer (2004) ArticleTitleSingular vectors for moisture-measuring norms Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc 130 963–987 Occurrence Handle10.1256/qj.02.227
GS Forbes RM Blackburn PL Taylor (1993) ArticleTitle“Blizzard of the century” – the storm of the 12–14 March 1993 over the eastern United States Meteor Mag 122 153–162
Y Fouquart B Bonnel (1980) ArticleTitleComputation of solar heating of the Earth’s atmosphere: a new parameterization Beitr Phys Atmos 53 35–62
A Gilchrist (1971) ArticleTitleAn example of synoptic development in a general circulation model Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc 97 340–347 Occurrence Handle10.1002/qj.49709741310
DB Gilhousen (1994) ArticleTitleThe value of NDBC observations during March 1993’s “Storm of the Century” Weather Forecast 9 255–264 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0434(1994)009<0255:TVONOD>2.0.CO;2
Giorgetta M, Wild M (1995) The water vapour continuum and its representation in ECHAM4. MPI Report 162, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
Grell GA, Dudhia J, Stauffer DR (1995) A description of the 5th generation Penn State/NCAR mesoscale model (MM5). NCAR Tech Note TN-398+STR, NCAR, Boulder, CO, USA
AJ Heymsfield (1977) ArticleTitlePrecipitation development in stratiform ice clouds. A microphysical and dynamical study J Atmos Sci 34 367–381 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0469(1977)034<0367:PDISIC>2.0.CO;2
JE Hoke RA Anthes (1976) ArticleTitleThe initialization of numerical models by a dynamic-initialization technique Mon Wea Rev 104 1551–1556 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(1976)104<1551:TIONMB>2.0.CO;2
Z Huo D-L Zhang J Gyakum A Staniforth (1995) ArticleTitleA diagnostic analysis of the superstorm of March 1993 Mon Wea Rev 123 1740–1761 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(1995)123<1740:ADAOTS>2.0.CO;2
Jacob D (2000) Personal communication
D Jacob R Potzun (1997) ArticleTitleSensitivity studies with the regional climate model REMO Meteorol Atmos Phys 63 119–129 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF01025368
ABM Jeuken PC Siegmung LC Heijboer J Feichter L Bengtsson (1996) ArticleTitleOn the potential of assimilating meteorological analysis in a global climate model for the purpose of model validation J Geophys Res 101 16939–16950 Occurrence Handle10.1029/96JD01218
Kållberg P (1997) Aspects of the re-analysed climate. ECMWF Re-Analysis Project Report Series 2. European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasts, Reading, UK
Kirchner I (1999) Personal communication
Klepp C (2000) Personal communication
PJ Kocin PN Schumacher RF Morales SuffixJr LW Uccellini (1995) ArticleTitleOverview of the 12–14 March 1993 superstorm Bull Am Meteorol Soc 76 165–182 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0477(1995)076<0165:OOTMS>2.0.CO;2
TN Krishnamurti J Xue HS Bedi K Ingles D Oosterhof (1991) ArticleTitlePhysical initialization for numerical weather prediction over the tropics Tellus 43AB 53–81
TN Krishnamurti HS Bedi K Ingles (1993) ArticleTitlePhysical initialization using SSM/I rain rates Tellus 45A 247–269
U Lohmann N McFarlene L Levkov K Abdella F Albers (1999) ArticleTitleComparing different cloud schemes of a single column model by using mesoscale forcing and nudging technique J Climate 12 438–461 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0442(1999)012<0438:CDCSOA>2.0.CO;2
LT Matveev (1984) Cloud dynamics SeriesTitleAtmospheric Science Library D. Reidel Publishing Company Dordrecht 340
NA McFarlane GJ Boer J-P Blanchet M Lazare (1992) ArticleTitleThe Canadian climate center second-generation general circulation model and its equilibrium climate J Climate 5 1013–1044 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<1013:TCCCSG>2.0.CO;2
MJ Miller TN Palmer R Swinbank (1989) ArticleTitleParameterization and influence of sub-grid scale orography in general circulation and numerical weather prediction models Meteorol Atmos Phys 40 84–109 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF01027469
MW Moncrieff (1995) ArticleTitleMesoscale convection from a large-scale perspective Atmos Res 35 87–112 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0169-8095(94)00012-3
J-J Morcrette (1991) ArticleTitleRadiation and cloud radiative processes in the European centre for medium range weather forecasts forecasting system J Geophys Res 96 9121–9132 Occurrence Handle10.1029/89JD01597
Nordeng TE (1994) Extended version of the convective parameterization scheme at ECMWF and their impact on the mean and transient activity of the model in the tropics. Tech. Memo 206, European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, Reading, UK
TN Palmer GJ Shutts R Swinbank (1986) ArticleTitleAlleviation of a systematic westerly bias in general circulation and numerical weather prediction models through an orographic gravity wave drag parameterization Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc 112 1001–1031 Occurrence Handle10.1002/qj.49711247406
TJ Phillips GA Potter DL Williamson RT Cederwall JS Boyle M Fiorino JJ Hnilo JG Olson S Xie J Yio (2004) ArticleTitleEvaluation of parameterizations in general circulation models – climate simulation meets weather prediction Bull Am Meteor Soc 85 IssueID12 1903–1915 Occurrence Handle10.1175/BAMS-85-12-1903
RW Reynolds NA Rayner TM Smith DC Stokes W Wang (1994) ArticleTitleAn improved in situ and satellite SST analysis for climate J Climate 15 IssueID13 1609–1625 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<1609:AIISAS>2.0.CO;2
B Rockel E Raschke W Weyres (1991) ArticleTitleA parameterization of broad-band radiative transfer properties of water, ice and mixed clouds Beitr Phys Atmos 64 1–12
Roeckner E, Rieland M, Keup E (1991) Modeling of cloud and radiation in the ECHAM model. In: ECMWF/WCRP Workshop on “clouds, radiative transfer and the hydrological cycle”, 12–15 Nov 1990. European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, Reading, UK, pp. 199–222
Roeckner E, Arpe K, Bengtsson L, Christoph M, Claussen M, Diimenil L, Gior-getta M, Schlese U, Schulzweida U (1996) The atmospheric general circulation model ECHAM4: model description and simulation of the present-day climate. MPI Report 218, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
B Ryan J Katzfey D Abbs C Jacob U Lohmann B Rockel L Rotstayan R Steward K Szeto G Tselioudis M Yau (2000) ArticleTitleSimulations of a cold front by cloud-resolving, limited-area, and large-scale models, and a model evaluation using in situ and satellite observations Mon Wea Rev 128 3218–3235 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(2000)128<3218:SOACFB>2.0.CO;2
Shapiro M, Keyser D (1990) Fronts, jet streams and the tropopause. In: Newton CW, Holopainen E (eds) Extratropical cyclones: The Erik Palmen Memorial Volume. Am Meteor Soc, pp. 167–191
DR Stauffer NL Seaman (1990) ArticleTitleUse of four-dimensional data assimilation in a limited-area mesoscale model. Part I: experiments with synoptic-scale data Mon Wea Rev 118 1250–1277 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(1990)118<1250:UOFDDA>2.0.CO;2
DR Stauffer NL Seaman (1994) ArticleTitleOn multi-scale four-dimensionl data assimilation J Appl Meteorol 33 416–434 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0450(1994)033<0416:MFDDA>2.0.CO;2
H Sundqvist (1978) ArticleTitleA parameterization scheme for non-convective condensation including prediction of cloud water content Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc 104 677–690 Occurrence Handle10.1002/qj.49710444110
M Tiedtke (1989) ArticleTitleA comprehensive mass flux scheme for cumulus parameterization in large-scale models Mon Wea Rev 117 1779–1800 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(1989)117<1779:ACMFSF>2.0.CO;2
M Tiedtke (1993) ArticleTitleRepresentation of clouds in large-scale models Mon Wea Rev 121 3040–3061 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(1993)121<3040:ROCILS>2.0.CO;2
I Troen L Mahrt (1986) ArticleTitleA simple model of the atmospheric boundary layer: sensitivity to surface evaporation Bound Layer Meteorol 37 129–148 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00122760
LW Uccellini PJ Kocin (1987) ArticleTitleThe interaction of jet streak circulations during heavy snow events along the east coast of the united states Wea Forecast 2 289–308 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0434(1987)002<0289:TIOJSC>2.0.CO;2
LW Uccelini PJ Kocin RS Schneider PM Stokols RA Dorr (1995) ArticleTitleForecasting the 12–14 March 1993 superstorm Bull Am Meteorol Soc 76 183–199 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0477(1995)076<0183:FTMS>2.0.CO;2
P Viterbo ACM Beljaars (1995) ArticleTitleAn improved land surface parameterization scheme in the ECMWF model and its validation J Climate 8 IssueID11 2716–2748 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0442(1995)008<2716:AILSPS>2.0.CO;2
CJ Walcek (1994) ArticleTitleCloud cover and its relationship to relative humidity during a springtime midlatitude cyclone Mon Wea Rev 122 1021–1035 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(1994)122<1021:CCAIRT>2.0.CO;2
D Williamson J Boyle R Cederwall M Fiorino J Hnilo J Olson T Phillips G Potter S Xie (2005) ArticleTitleMoisture and temperature balances at the atmospheric radiation measurement southern great plains site in forecasts with the community atmosphere model 2 (CAM2) J Geophys Res 110 D15S16 Occurrence Handle10.1029/2004JD005109
DL Williamson PJ Rasch (1989) ArticleTitleTwo-dimensional semi-Lagrangian transport with shape preserving interpolation Mon Wea Rev 117 102–129 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(1989)117<0102:TDSLTW>2.0.CO;2
DL Williamson PJ Rasch (1994) ArticleTitleWater vapour transport in the NCAR CCM2 Tellus 46A 34–51
KM Xu SK Kruger (1991) ArticleTitleEvaluation of cloudiness parameterizations using a cumulus ensemble model Mon Wea Rev 119 342–367 Occurrence Handle10.1175/1520-0493(1991)119<0342:EOCPUA>2.0.CO;2
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Correspondence: Hans-Stefan Bauer, Institute of Physics and Meteorology, University of Hohenheim, Garbenstraße 30, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
Rights and permissions
Open Access This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0 ), which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.
About this article
Cite this article
Bauer, HS., Wulfmeyer, V. & Bengtsson, L. The representation of a synoptic-scale weather system in a thermodynamically adjusted version of the ECHAM4 general circulation model. Meteorol Atmos Phys 99, 129–153 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-007-0275-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-007-0275-2