Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Source and sink dynamics of density-dependent otter (Lutra lutra) populations in rivers of central Finland

  • Population Ecology
  • Published:
Oecologia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Long-term studies were carried out in central Finland between 1985 and 2003 to examine the temporal and spatial variation in the density of otter populations. Snow tracking was used to estimate the total population and the number of litters in the study area. In total 52 otters, including 16 cubs in 11 litters, lived in the study area (1,650 km2) in 2002–2003. The otter population clearly increased during the study period. The increase in density of the otter population was sigmoid, indicating that the population had reached the local carrying capacity. The density of the population was 0.12 individuals per river ha in 1985 and 0.29 individuals per river ha in 2002. The number of cubs per litter decreased when the density of the population increased. Density-dependent offspring production, together with the auto-correlation function of growth rate, indicates intraspecific competition in otter populations. Otters in a few river systems produced most of the cubs, creating several small source populations in the entire study area. Otters in secondary (sink) habitats had a low reproduction rate. Most otters lived in river systems with large lake surfaces. The number or area of lakes within the river system correlated positively with the total number of otters, litters and cubs in the river system. The six river systems (out of 16) with the largest water area of lakes produced 81.2% of all cubs born in the study area. However, the population growth rate per river hectare or per river kilometre was equal in all kinds of river systems. Thus, among local otter populations in central Finland, a source–sink system between different habitats seems to be prevalent.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3a, b
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Begon M, Harper JL, Townsend CR (1990) Ecology—individuals, populations and communities. Blackwell, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Brzezinski M, Romanowski J, Cygan JP, Pabin B (1996) Otter Lutra lutra distribution in Poland. Acta Theriol 41:113–126

    Google Scholar 

  • Carss DN, Kruuk H, Conroy JWH (1990) Predation on adult Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., by otters, Lutra lutra L., within the river Dee system, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. J Fish Biol 37:935–944

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chanin P (1985) The natural history of otters. Fact on File, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Chanin P (2003) Ecology of the European otter Lutra lutra. Conserving natura 2000 rivers, ecology series no 10. English Nature, Peterborough

  • Conroy JWH, Chanin P (2002) The status of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra). In: Dulfer R, Conroy J, Nel J, Gutleb AC (eds) Otter conservation—an example for a sustainable use of wetlands. Proceedings of the VIIth International Otter colloquium, Trebon 1998. IUCN Otter Specialist Group bulletin, vol 19A. Special issue. IUCN, Gland, pp 24–48

  • Conroy JWH, French DD (1987) The use of spraints to monitor populations of otters (Lutra lutra L.). Symp Zool Soc Lond 58:247–262

    Google Scholar 

  • Coxon K, Chanin P, Dallas JF, Sykes T (1999) The use of DNA fingerprinting to study the population dynamics of otters (Lutra lutra) in southern Britain: a feasibility study. R&D technical report W202. Environment Agency, Swindon

  • Erlinge S (1967) Home range of the otter Lutra lutra L. in Southern Sweden. Oikos 18:186–209

    Google Scholar 

  • Erlinge S (1968) Territoriality of the otter Lutra lutra L. Oikos 19:81–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finnish Meteorological Institute (1997) Meteorological yearbook (in Finnish). Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki

  • Green J, Green R, Jefferies DJ (1984) A radio-tracking survey of otters Lutra lutra on a Perthshire river system. Lutra 27:85–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Heggberget TM, Christensen H (1994) Reproductive timing in Eurasian otters on the coast of Norway. Ecography 17:339–348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helle P, Wikman M, Helle E, Belkin V, Bljudnik L, Danilov P (1998) Nisäkkäiden lumijälki laskennat 1998 Suomessa ja Venäjän karjalassa (in Finnish). Riistantutkimuksen tiedote 151. RKTL, Helsinki

  • Hertweck K, Klenke R, Henle K (2002) Estimating the density of otter Lutra lutra populations using individual analyses of tracks. In: Dulfer R, Conroy J, Nel J, Gutleb AC (eds) Otter conservation – an example for a sustainable use of wetlands. Proceedings VIIth. International Otter Colloquium, Trebon 1998. IUCN Otter Specialist Group bulletin, vol 19A. Special issue. IUCN, Gland, pp 118–122

  • Höglund J (1996) Jämförelse mellan minkens och utterns näringsval i två sötvattenområden (in Swedish). MSc thesis, University of Helsinki, Helsinki

  • IUCN (2000) Surveying and monitoring distribution and population trends of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra)—guidelines and evaluation of the standard method for surveys as recommended by the European section of the IUCN/SSC Otter Specialist Group. Habitat 12, Aktion Fischotterschutz. IUCN, Gland

  • Jansman AH, Chanin P, Dallas JF (2001) Monitoring otter populations by DNA typing of spraints. IUCN Otter Spec Group Bull 18:12–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins D, Burrows GG (1980) Ecology of otters in Northern Scotland. III. The use of faeces as indicators of otter (Lutra lutra) density and distribution J Anim Ecol 49:755–774

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kauhala K (1996) Distributional history of the American mink (Mustela vison) in Finland with special reference to the trends in otter (Lutra lutra) populations. Ann Zool Fenn 33:283–291

    Google Scholar 

  • Klenke R (2002) Habitat suitability and apparent density of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) in Saxony (Germany). In: Dulfer R, Conroy J, Nel J, Gutleb AC (eds) Otter conservation—an example for a sustainable use of wetlands. Proceedings of the VIIth International Otter Colloquium, Trebon 1998. IUCN Otter Specialist Group bulletin, vol 19A. Special issue. IUCN, Gland

  • Kranz A, Knollseisen M (1998) How many otters live “here”? A discussion about counting otters. BOKU Rep Wildl Res Game Manage 14:120–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Kranz A, Toman A, Knollseisen M, Prasek V (2002) Fish ponds in Central Europe—a rich but risky habitat for otters. In: Dulfer R, Conroy J, Nel J, Gutleb AC (eds) Otter conservation—an example for a sustainable use of wetlands. Proceedings of the VIIth International Otter Colloquium, Trebon 1998. IUCN Otter Specialist Group bulletin, vol 19A. Special issue. IUCN, Gland

  • Kruuk H (1995) Wild otters, predation and populations. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk H, Conroy JWH (1991) Mortality of otters Lutra lutra in Shetland. J Appl Ecol 28:83–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk H, Moorhause A (1991) The spatial organization of otters (Lutra lutra L.) in Shetland. J Zool 224:41–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk H, Conroy JWH, Moorhouse A (1987) Seasonal reproduction, mortality and food of otters Lutra lutra L. in Shetland. Symp Zool Soc Lond 58:263–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk H, Moorhouse A, Conroy JWH, Durbin L, Frears S (1989) An estimate of numbers and habitat preferences of otters Lutra lutra in Shetland, UK. Biol Conserv 49:241–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk H, Conroy JWH, Moorhouse A (1991) Recruitment to a population of otters (Lutra lutra) in Shetland, in relation to fish abundance. J Appl Ecol 28:95–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk H, Carss DN, Conroy JWH, Durbin L (1993) Otter (Lutra lutra L.) numbers and fish productivity in rivers in N.E. Scotland. Symp Zool Soc Lond 65:171–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig GX, Hokka V, Sulkava R, Ylönen H (2002) Otter Lutra lutra predation on farmed and free-living salmonids in boreal freshwater habitats. Wildl Biol 8:193–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald SM, Mason CF (1994) Status and conservation needs of the otter (Lutra lutra) in Western Palearctic. Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Nature and environment, no. 67. Council of Europe, Strasbourg

  • Mann RHK, Penczak T (1986) Fish production in rivers: a review. Pol Arch Hydrobiol 33:233–247

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason CF, Macdonald SM (1986) Otters: ecology and conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason CF, Macdonald SM (1987) The use of spraints for surveying otter Lutra lutra populations: an evaluation. Biol Conserv 41:167–177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason CF, Macdonald SM (1991) Assessment of otter (Lutra lutra) survey methods using spraints. In: Reuther C, Röchert R (eds) Proceedings of the Vth International Otter Colloquium, Hankensbuttel, 1989. Habitat 6:167–170

  • Melquist WE, Hornocker MG (1983) Ecology of river otters in west central Idaho. Wildl Monogr 83:1–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolet BA, Wansink DEH, Kruuk H (1993) Diving of otters (Lutra lutra) in a marine habitats: use of depths by a single-prey loader. J Anim Ecol 62:22–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozolins J, Rantins M (1992) The distribution and habitat conditions of the otter (Lutra lutra) in Latvia. Proceedings of the First Baltic Theriological Conference, Tartu, pp 186–195

  • Pulliam HR (1988) Sources, sinks and population regulation. Am Nat 132:652–661

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reid DG, Bayer MD, Code TE, McLean B (1987) A possible method for estimating river otter, Lutra canadensis, populations using snow tracks. Can Field Nat 101:576–580

    Google Scholar 

  • Royama T (1992) Analytical population dynamics. Chapman & Hall, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Sidorovich VE (1997) Mustelids in Belarus—evolutionary ecology, demography and interspecific relationships. Zolotoy, Minsk

    Google Scholar 

  • Sidorovich VE, Pikulik MM (2002) Factors allowing high density of otters in Eastern Europe. In: Dulfer R, Conroy J, Nel J, Gutleb AC (eds) Otter conservation—an example for a sustainable use of wetlands. Proceedings of the VIIth International Otter Colloquium, Trebon 1998. IUCN Otter Specialist Group bulletin, vol 19A. Special issue. IUCN, Gland, pp 326–333

  • Sidorovich VE, Jedrezejewska B, Jedrezejewski W (1996) Winter distribution and abundance of mustelids and beavers in the river valleys of Bialowieza Primeval Forest. Acta Theriol 41:155–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Simek L (1996) Numbers, density and structure of the Trebon otter population. Vydra Bull 7:28–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Simek L (1997) First estimate of numbers of the otter in the Trebon biosphere reserve. In: Toman A, Hlavac V (eds) Proceedings of the 14th Mustelin Colloquium, Czech Republic, 1995. Praha, pp 81–87

  • Simek L, Springer Z (1998) Population dynamics (otter). In: Dulfer R, Roche K (eds) First phase report of the Trebon otter project. Nature and Environment, no. 93. Council of Europe, Strasbourg, pp 21–30

  • Sinclair ARE, Norton-Griffiths M (1982) Does competition or facilitation regulate migrant ungulate populations in the Serengeti? A test of hypotheses. Oecologia 53:364–369

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Storrank B, Sulkava R, Liukko U-M (2002) Testing a method to monitor the otter (Lutra lutra) population in Finland—a pilot study based on snow tracking. In: Dulfer R, Conroy J, Nel J, Gutleb AC (eds) Otter conservation—an example for a sustainable use of wetlands. Proceedings of the VIIth International Otter Colloquium, Trebon, 1998. IUCN Otter Specialist Group bulletin, vol 19A. Special issue. IUCN, Gland, pp 346–350

  • Sulkava R (1993) Status and ecology of the otter (Lutra lutra L.) in central Finland in 1985–1993 and an evaluation of survey methods (in Finnish). MSc thesis, University of Joensuu

  • Sulkava R (1995) Snow tracking in the monitoring of otter Lutra lutra populations in Finland (in Finnish). Report. Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki

  • Sulkava R (1996) Diet of otters (Lutra lutra) in central Finland. Acta Theriol 41:395–408

    Google Scholar 

  • Sulkava R (2006) Ecology of the otter (Lutra lutra) in central Finland and methods for estimating the densities of populations. PhD thesis, University of Joensuu

  • Sulkava R (2007a) Snow tracking—a relevant method for estimating otter (Lutra lutra) populations. Wildl Biol (in press)

  • Sulkava R (2007b) Seasonal breeding of otters (Lutra lutra) in Central Finland. IOSF Proceedings of the Otter Colloquium in Skye 2003. IOSF, Skye (in press)

  • Sulkava R, Liukko U-M (1999) Valtakunnallinen saukkokannan lumijälkiseuranta (in Finnish with English abstract, summary and conclusions: the population size and onitoring of otters in Finland). In: Liukko (ed) Saukkokannan tila ja seuranta Suomessa. Suomen Ympäristö, Luonto ja Luonnonvarat, 353. Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, pp 7–77

  • Sulkava R, Liukko U-M (2007) Use of snow-tracking methods to estimate the abundance of otter (Lutra lutra) in Finland with evaluation of one-visit census for monitoring purposes. Ann Zool Fenn (in press)

  • Sulkava R, Storrank B (1993) Hur väl återspeglar barmarksinventeringar ett områdes verkliga utterstam? Erfarenheter från Kumo älvs kallflöden 1990–91 (in Swedish with English abstract: the use of spraints in evaluating the status of an otter (Lutra lutra) population—surveys on River Kokemäenjoki, Central Finland, from 1990 to 1991). Mem Soc Fauna Flora Fenn 69:65–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Sulkava P, Sulkava R (1989) Saukon esiintymisestä ja elintavoista Suomessa (in Finnish with English abstract: distribution and ecology of otters (Lutra lutra) in central Finland). Luonnon Tutkija 93:124–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Testa JW, Holleman DF, Bowyer RT, Faro JB (1994) Estimating populations of marine river otters in Prince William Sound, Alaska, using radiotracer implants. J Mammal 75:1021–1032

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trindade A, Farinha N (2002) Otter distribution in Portugal. In: Dulfer R, Conroy J, Nel J, Gutleb AC (eds) Otter conservation—an example for a sustainable use of wetlands. Proceedings of the VIIth International Otter Colloquium, Trebon, 1998. IUCN Otter Specialist Group bulletin, vol 19A. Special issue. IUCN, Gland, pp 356–360

  • Tumanov IL (2002) Status and reproductive features of otter (Lutra lutra L.) in the north-west of Russia. In: Dulfer R, Conroy J, Nel J, Gutleb AC (eds) Otter conservation—an example for a sustainable use of wetlands. Proceedings of the VIIth International Otter Colloquium, Trebon, 1998. IUCN Otter Specialist Group bulletin, vol 19A. Special issue. IUCN, Gland, pp 361–364

  • Wijngaarden A van, Peppel J van de (1970) De otter Lutra lutra L. in Nederland. Lutra 12:1–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Wlodek K (1980) Der Fischotter in der Provinz Pomorze Zachdonie (West-Pommern) in Polen. In: Reuther C, Festetics A (eds) Der fischotter in Europa—Verbreitung, Bedrohung, Erhaltung. Selbstverlag, Oderhaus

  • Zalewski M, Frankiewicz P, Brewinska-Zaras B (1986) The production of brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) introduced to streams of various orders in an upland watershed. Pol Arch Hydrobiol 33:411–422

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all our field assistants for their help in the fieldwork. Our thanks are also due to Jorma Tahvanainen, Heikki Hyvärinen, Heikki Roininen and Seppo Sulkava for their comments on the manuscript, and Hannu Huuskonen for his help with the statistical analyses. Jorma Tahvanainen and Rosemary Mackenzie checked the English language of this paper. The Finnish Environment Institute, the Memoranda Society and WWF Finland have all provided financial support for some part of this study. This research has been performed in compliance with all the applicable Finnish legislation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biology, University of Joensuu, Joensuu, Finland

    Risto T. Sulkava

  2. Forest and Park Service, Peuratie 15, Enontekio, Northern Lapland, 99400, Finland

    Pekka O. Sulkava

  3. Lampilantie 8, Haapamaki, 42800, Finland

    Pertti E. Sulkava

  4. Aaponkaari 3, Haapamaki, 42800, Finland

    Risto T. Sulkava

Authors
  1. Risto T. Sulkava
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pekka O. Sulkava
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Pertti E. Sulkava
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Risto T. Sulkava.

Additional information

Communicated by Hannu Ylonen.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Sulkava, R.T., Sulkava, P.O. & Sulkava, P.E. Source and sink dynamics of density-dependent otter (Lutra lutra) populations in rivers of central Finland. Oecologia 153, 579–588 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-007-0774-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-007-0774-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation