Abstract
Blastocystis sp. is a common eukaryotic microorganism that colonizes the intestinal tract of several animals, including humans, although its role as a pathogen is still unclear. In the present study, we report the prevalence and risk factors associated with Blastocystis infection in scholars from a rural community in Mexico. A cross-sectional observational study was carried out on schoolchildren aged 3 to 15 years old; fecal samples were analyzed by culture, Faust technique, and molecular analysis. In addition, a structured questionnaire was applied to identify possible risk factors. Of the 177 samples obtained, Blastocystis sp. was the microorganism that presented the highest frequency (n=78, 44%), and included the following subtypes (STs): ST1 (n=43, 56.5%), ST2 (n=18, 23.6%), and ST3 (n=15, 19.7%); Blastocystis STs were not identified in two cases. No associating factors were found between Blastocystis infection or among STs vs. symptoms. During bivariate analysis, no statistically significant risk factors were found, except for the variable of “eating sweets, snacks, and handmade food on the way home” (p=0.04). Therefore, it is plausible to conclude that schoolchildren become infected with Blastocystis sp. mainly outside their homes, perhaps by eating contaminated handmade food on their way to or from school; however, this variable should be evaluated in detail in future studies.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files.
References
Al Nahhas S, Aboualchamat G (2020) Investigation of parasitic contamination of salad vegetables sold by street vendors in city markets in Damascus, Syria. Food Waterborne Parasitol 21:e00090
Ake-Canche B, Rodriguez-Bataz E, Esquivel-Piña JY, Tolentino-Loreto A, Arroyo-Escalante S, Martínez-Ocaña J, Romero-Valdovinos M, Valenzuela O, Orozco-Mosqueda GE, Martinez-Hernandez F, Maravilla P, Martinez A (2022) Can the genetic variability of Blastocystis sp. be associated with the climatic region of its human carriers? Infect Genet Evol 106:105383
Chang T, Jung BK, Shin H, Hong S, Ryoo S, Lee J, Han S, Park SM, Rhee MS, Kimm H, Jee SH, Chai JY (2021) Genotypes of Blastocystis sp. among elderly health checkup people in South Korea with a questionnaire on risk factors. Parasitol Res 120:3297–3306
Cruz-Licea V, Plancarte-Crespo A, Morán-Alvarez C, Valencia-Rojas S, Rodríguez-Sánchez G, Vega Franco L (2003) Blastocystis hominis among food vendors in Xochimilco markets. Rev Latinoam Microbiol 45:12–15
Hublin JSY, Maloney JG, Santin M (2021) Blastocystis in domesticated and wild mammals and birds. Res Vet Sci 135:260–282
Jinatham V, Nonebudsri C, Wandee T, Popluechai S, Tsaousis AD, Gentekaki E (2022) Blastocystis in tap water of a community in northern Thailand. Parasitol Int 91:102624
Jinatham V, Wandee T, Nonebudsri C, Popluechai S, Tsaousis AD, Gentekaki E (2023) Blastocystis subtypes in raw vegetables from street markets in northern Thailand. Parasitol Res 122:1027–1031
Leelayoova S, Rangsin R, Taamasri P, Naaglor T, Thathaisong U, Mungthin M (2004) Evidence of waterborne transmission of Blastocystis hominis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70:658–662
Maloney JG, Molokin A, Seguí R, Maravilla P, Martínez-Hernández F, Villalobos G, Tsaousis AD, Gentekaki E, Muñoz-Antolí C, Klisiowicz DR, Oishi CY, Toledo R, Esteban JG, Köster PC, de Lucio A, Dashti A, Bailo B, Calero-Bernal R, González-Barrio D et al (2022) Identification and molecular characterization of four new Blastocystis subtypes designated ST35-ST38. Microorganisms 11:46
Olyaiee A, Sadeghi A, Yadegar A, Mirsamadi ES, Mirjalali H (2022) Gut microbiota shifting in irritable bowel syndrome: the mysterious role of Blastocystis sp. Front Med (Lausanne) 9:890127
Popruk S, Adao DEV, Rivera WL (2021) Epidemiology and subtype distribution of Blastocystis in humans: a review. Infect Genet Evol 95:105085
Rodriguez E, Mateos B, Gonzalez JC, Aguilar YM, Alarcón E, Mendoza AA, Mier M, Mora MA, Bernal RM (2008) Parasitic transition to Blastocystis hominis in children from center zone of Guerrero state, Mexico. Parasitol Latinoam 63:20–28
Rojas-Velázquez L, Morán P, Serrano-Vázquez A, Fernández LD, Pérez-Juárez H, Poot-Hernández AC, Portillo T, González E, Hernández E, Partida-Rodríguez O, Nieves-Ramírez ME, Magaña U, Torres J, Eguiarte LE, Piñero D, Ximénez C (2018) Genetic diversity and distribution of Blastocystis subtype 3 in human populations, with special reference to a rural population in Central Mexico. Biomed Res Int 2018:3916263
Salazar-Sanchez RS, Ascuña-Durand K, Ballon-Echegaray J, Vasquez-Huerta V, Martinez-Barrios E, Castillo-Neyra R (2021) Socio-Demographic Determinants Associated with Blastocystis Infection in Arequipa, Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg 104:700–707
Santin M, Gomez-Muñoz MT, Solano-Aguilar G, Fayer R (2011) Development of a new PCR protocol to detect and subtype Blastocystis spp. from humans and animals. Parasitol Res 109:205–212
Santos HJ, Rivera WL (2013) Comparison of direct fecal smear microscopy, culture, and polymerase chain reaction for the detection of Blastocystis sp. in human stool samples. Asian Pac. J Trop Med 6(10):780–784
Shamah-Levy T, Cuevas-Nasu L, Méndez-Gómez-Humarán I, Jimenez-Aguilar A, Mendoza-Ramírez AJ, Villalpando S (2011) La obesidad en niños mexicanos en edad escolar se asocia con el consumo de alimentos fuera del hogar: durante el trayecto de la casa a la escuela. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición 61:288–295
Stensvold CR, Lewis HC, Hammerum AM, Porsbo LJ, Nielsen SS, Olsen KE, Arendrup MC, Nielsen HV, Mølbak K (2009) Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite. Epidemiol Infect 137(11):1655–1663
Tan KSW (2008) New insights on classification, identification, and clinical relevance of Blastocystis spp. Clin Microbiol Rev 21:639–665
Vargas-Sanchez GB, Romero-Valdovinos M, Ramirez-Guerrero C, Vargas-Hernandez I, Ramirez-Miranda ME, Martinez-Ocaña J, Valadez A, Ximenez C, Lopez-Escamilla E, Hernandez-Campos ME, Villalobos G, Martinez-Hernandez F, Maravilla P (2015) Blastocystis isolates from patients with irritable bowel syndrome and from asymptomatic carriers exhibit similar parasitological loads, but significantly different generation times and genetic variability across multiple subtypes. PLoS One 10:e0124006
Villanueva-Garcia C, Gordillo-Chavez EJ, Lopez-Escamilla E, Rendon-Franco E, Muñoz-Garcia CI, Gama L, Martinez-Flores WA, Gonzalez-Rodriguez N, Romero-Valdovinos M, Diaz-Lopez H, Galian J, Villalobos G, Maravilla P, Martinez-Hernandez F (2017) Clarifying the cryptic host specificity of Blastocystis spp. Isolates from Alouatta palliata and A. pigra howler monkeys. PLoS One 12:e0169637
Villegas-Gómez I, Martínez-Hernández F, Urrea-Quezada A, González-Díaz M, Durazo M, Hernández J, Orozco-Mosqueda GE, Villalobos G, Maravilla P, Valenzuela O (2016) Comparison of the genetic variability of Blastocystis subtypes between human carriers from two contrasting climatic regions of México. Infect Genet Evol 44:334–340
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Laura Marquez and Nelly Lopez, LaNaBio, Instituto de Biologia UNAM, for their assistance during the sequencing technique.
Funding
This study received financial support from Secretaría de Salud México, Hospital General “Dr. Manuel Gea Gonzalez,” Grant #E022.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
LAH-G, JS-L: collected the samples, performed coprological analysis, and applied questionnaires; SAP-R: provided technical laboratory facilities; AM, MR-V, FMH: performed the molecular and phylogenetic analysis; ER-F, AO-D: performed the statistical analysis; PM, ER-V: proposed the original idea and obtained the authorizations and local funding. All authors participated during the discussion, writing, and reviewing of the manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
The Research Ethics and Research Committees of the General Hospital “Dr. Manuel Gea Gonzalez” (HGMGG) approved the study with reference number 12-75-2015.
Informed consent/consent for publication
Written informed consent and consent for publication were obtained from all participants included in the study.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Section Editor: Kevin Tan
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Hidalgo-Gonzalez, L.A., Salgado-Lopez, J., Pineda-Rodriguez, S.A. et al. Identification of Blastocystis sp. in school children from a rural Mexican village: subtypes and risk factors analysis. Parasitol Res 122, 1701–1707 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-023-07872-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-023-07872-w