Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Bright-light effects on cognitive performance in elderly persons working simulated night shifts: psychological well-being as a mediator?

  • Original Article
  • Published:
International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

The present study examined whether the relationship between light exposure and cognitive functioning is mediated by psychological well-being in elderly persons working night shifts. The role of psychological well-being has been neglected so far in the relationship between bright light and cognitive performance. Sleepiness and mood were applied as indicators of psychological well-being. Cognitive functioning was examined in terms of concentration, working memory, and divided attention.

Methods

A total of thirty-two test persons worked in three consecutive simulated night shifts, 16 under bright light (3,000 lux) and 16 under room light (300 lux). Concentration, working memory, and divided attention were measured by computerised tasks. The hypothesised mediators were recorded by questionnaires.

Results

Mediation analyses were conducted for estimating direct, total, and indirect effects in simple mediation models. Results indicate that sleepiness and mood did not function as mediators in the prediction of concentration, working memory, and/or divided attention by light exposure.

Conclusions

Sleepiness led to an underestimation of the positive bright-light effect on concentration performance. Mood showed only a random effect due to the positive bright-light effect on working memory. Sleepiness and mood could completely be excluded as mediators in the relationship between light exposure and cognitive functioning. This study underlines that psychological well-being of elderly persons is not a critical component in the treatment of bright light on cognitive performance in the night shift workplace. In summary, it becomes evident that bright light has a strong direct and independent effect on cognitive performance, particularly on working memory and concentration.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. According to a multitude of studies, only a correlation between mood disorders (e.g. major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder) and sleepiness can be reported (Ohayon 2012). It has been shown that the relationship between negative and positive mood, well-being in general and indices of sleep have not been thoroughly examined in nonclinical persons (Howell et al. 2008; Pilcher et al. 1997). Instead of sleepiness, mainly total sleep time, sleep onset time, sleep duration, or sleep quality have so far been assessed in relation to mood ratings (Howell et al. 2008).

  2. Analysing possible interaction effects, only working memory showed a significant ‘Light × Time' interaction (F = 4.98, p < 0.01) with a quadratic trend (F = 10.50, p < 0.01). Regarding this hybrid interaction, only the main factor ‘Light' can globally be interpreted (Bortz and Döring 1995). Independent of time, the mean number of correct responses was higher under bright light than under room light on all three testing days. Thus, bright light is more effective than room light. In comparison, the factor ‘Time' is not globally interpretable because the time course of working memory performance in the bright-light group differs from the room-light group.

References

  • aan het Rot, Moskowitz DS, Young SN (2008) Exposure to bright light is associated with positive social interaction and good mood over short time periods: a naturalistic study in mildly seasonal people. J Psychiatr Res 42:311–319

  • Axelsson J, Åkerstedt T, Kecklund G, Lowden A (2004) Tolerance to shift work: how does it relate to sleep and wakefulness? Int Arch Occup Environ Health 77:121–129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badia P, Myers B, Boecker M, Culpepper J (1991) Bright light effects on body temperature, alertness, EEG and behavior. Physiol Behav 50:583–588

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baron RM, Kenny DA (1986) The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J Pers Soc Behav 51(6):1173–1182

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bertone A, Bettinelli L, Faubert J (2007) The impact of blurred vision on cognitive assessment. J Clin Exp Neuropsyc 29(5):467–476

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blagrove M, Akehurst L (2001) Personality and the modulation of effects of sleep loss on mood and cognition. Pers Indiv Differ 30:819–828

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blok MM, de Looze MP (2011) What is the evidence for less shift work tolerance in older workers? Ergonomics 54(3):221–232

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bohner G, Schwarz N, Hormuth SE (1991) Die Stimmungs-Skala: vorstellung und Validierung einer deutschen Version des “Mood Survey”. Diagnostica 37(2):135–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonnefond A, Harmä M, Hakola T, Sallinen M, Kandolin I, Virkkala J (2006) Interaction of age with shift-related sleep-wakefulness, sleepiness, performance, and social life. Exp Aging Res 32(2):185–208

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonnefond A, Rohmer O, Engasser O, Hoeft A, Eschenlauer R, Muzet A, Tassi P (2008) Effects of age and task complexity on EEG and performance in relation to psychological states. J Psychophysiol 22(2):100–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bortz J, Döring N (1995) Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation für Human- und Sozialwissenschaftler (3rd edn). Springer, Heidelberg

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Budnick LD, Lerman SE, Nicolich MJ (1995) An evaluation of scheduled bright light and darkness on rotating shiftworkers: trial and limitations. Am J Ind Med 27:771–782

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell K, Harrison M, Adams M, Triplett NT (2009) Effect of Pilates and taiji quan training on self-efficacy, sleep quality, mood, and physical performance of college students. J Bodywork Mov Ther 13:155–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell SS, Dawson D (1990) Enhancement of nighttime alertness and performance with bright ambient light. Physiol Behav 48:317–320

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark MS, Isen AM (1982) Toward understanding the relationship between feeling states and social behavior. In: Hastof AH, Isen AM (eds) Cognitive psychology. Elsevier, New York, pp 73–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Clay OJ, Edwards JD, Ross LA, Okonkwo O, Wadley VG, Roth DL, Ball KK (2009) Visual function and cognitive speed of processing mediate age-related decline in memory span and fluid intelligence. J Aging Health 21(4):547–566

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cornelissen FW, Bootsma A, Kooijman AC (1995) Object perception by visually impaired people at different light levels. Vision Res 35(1):161–168

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costa G, Ghirlanda G, Tarondi G, Minors D, Waterhouse J (1994) Evaluation of a rapidly rotating shift system for tolerance of nurses to nightwork. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 65:305–311

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costa G, Sartori S, Bertoldo B, Olivato D, Antonacci G, Ciuffa V, Mauli F (2005) Work ability in health care workers. Int Congr Ser 1280:264–269

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cote KA, Milner CE, Osip SL, Baker ML, Cuthbert BP (2008) Physiological arousal and attention during a week of continuous sleep restriction. Physiol Behav 95:353–364

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curcio G, Casagrande M, Bertini M (2001) Sleepiness: evaluating and quantifying methods. Int J Psychophysiol 41:251–263

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • D’Anci KE, Watts KL, Kanarek RB, Taylor HA (2009) Low-carbohydrate weight-loss diets. Effects on cognition and mood. Appetite 52:96–103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daurat A, Foret J, Benoit O, Mauco G (2000) Bright light during nighttime: effects on the circadian regulation of alertness and performance. Biol Signal Recept 9:309–318

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davis MA (2009) Understanding the relationship between mood and creativity: a meta-analysis. Organ Behav Hum Dec 108:25–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Dijk DJ, Duffy JF, Czeisler CA (1992) Circadian and sleep/wake dependent aspects of subjective alertness and cognitive performance. J Sleep Res 1:112–117

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drevets WC, Raichle ME (1998) Reciprocal suppression of regional cerebral blood flow during emotional versus higher cognitive processes: implications for interactions between emotion and cognition. Cognition Emotion 12(3):353–385

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Düker H, Lienert GA, Lukesch H, Mayrhofer S (2001) Konzentrations-Leistungs-Test - Revidierte Fassung - (KLT-R). Hogrefe, Göttingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Eastman CI, Martin SK (1999) How to use light and dark to produce circadian adaptation to night shift work. Ann Med 31(2):87–98

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eastman CI, Liu L, Fogg LF (1995) Circadian rhythm adaptation to simulated night shift work: effect of nocturnal bright-light duration. Sleep 18(6):399–407

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fahrenberg J, Hampel R, Selg H (1984) Das Freiburger Persönlichkeitsinventar FPI (4th edn). Hogrefe, Göttingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiedler K, Schott M, Meiser T (2011) What mediation analysis can (not) do. J Exp Soc Psychol 47:1231–1236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Filipp S-H, Ahammer I, Angleitner A, Olbrich E (1980) Eine Untersuchung zu inter- und intraindividuellen Differenzen in der Wahrnehmung und Verarbeitung von subjektiv erlebten Persönlichkeitsveränderungen (Forschungsberichte aus dem Projekt “Entwicklungspsychologie des Erwachsenenalters” Nr. 11). Universität, Fachbereich I, Psychologie, Trier

  • Golden RN, Gaynes BN, Ekstrom RD, Hamer RM, Jacobsen FM, Suppes T, Wisner TS, Nemeroff CB (2005) The efficacy of light therapy in the treatment of mood disorders: a review and meta-analysis of the evidence. Am J Psychiatry 162:656–662

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gunzelmann G, Gluck KA, Moore LR, Dinges DF (2012) Diminished access to declarative knowledge with sleep deprivation. Cogn Syst Res 13:1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Handley IM, Lassiter GD (2002) Mood and information processing: when happy and sad look the same. Motiv Emotion 26(3):223–255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayashi M, Masuda A, Hori T (2003) The alerting effects of caffeine, bright light and face washing after a short daytime nap. Clin Neurophysiol 114:2268–2278

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herscovitch J, Broughton R (1981) Sensitivity of the Stanford Sleepiness Scale to the effects of cumulative partial sleep deprivation and recovery oversleeping. Sleep 4(1):83–92

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoddes E, Zarcone V, Smythe H, Phillips R, Dement WC (1973) Quantification of sleepiness: a new approach. Psychophysiology 10(4):431–436

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Howell AJ, Digdon NL, Buro K, Sheptycki AR (2008) Relations among mindfulness, well-being, and sleep. Pers Indiv Differ 45:773–777

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hubalek S, Brink M, Schierz C (2010) Office workers’ daily exposure to light and its influence on sleep quality and mood. Light Res Technol 42:33–50

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hullett CR (2005) The impact of mood on persuasion: a meta-analysis. Commun Res 32(4):423–442

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isen AM, Rosenzweig AS, Young MJ (1991) The influence of positive affect on clinical problem solving. Med Decis Making 11:221–227

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Isen AM, Niedenthal PM, Cantor N (1992) An influence of positive affect on social categorization. Motiv Emotion 16(1):65–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson LC, Spinweber CL, Gomez SA (1990) Benzodiazepines and caffeine: effect on daytime sleepiness, performance, and mood. Psychopharmacology 101:160–167

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kallus K (1995) Der Erholungs-Belastungs-Fragebogen (EBF). Swets & Zeitlinger, Frankfurt

    Google Scholar 

  • Knauth P (1993) The design of shift systems. Ergonomics 36(1–3):15–28

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knauth P (1996) Designing better shift systems. Appl Ergon 27(1):39–44

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knauth P, Rutenfranz J (1982) Development of criteria for the design of shiftwork systems. J Hum Ergol 11(Suppl):337–367

    Google Scholar 

  • Kretschmer V, Griefahn B, Schmidt K-H (2011) Bright light and night work: effects on selective and divided attention in elderly persons. Light Res Technol 43(4):473–486

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kretschmer V, Schmidt K-H, Griefahn B (2012) Bright light effects on working memory, concentration and sustained attention of elderly night shift workers. Light Res Technol 44(3):316–333

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kümmerling A (2007) Arbeiten, wenn andere frei haben: Nacht- und Wochenendarbeit im europäischen Vergleich (2007–02). Universität Duisburg-Essen, Institut Arbeit und Qualifikation, Essen

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus RS, Cohen JB (1977) Coping questionnaire. The hassles scale. The uplifts scale. Unpublished paper. University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley

  • Lichstein KL, Means MK, Noe SL, Aguillard RN (1997) Fatigue and sleep disorders. Behav Res Ther 35(8):733–740

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lowden A, Akerstedt T (1993) Jet lag in air crew a questionnaire study. Stress Res Reports 237:1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackie DM, Worth LT (1991) Feeling good, but not thinking straight: the impact of positive mood on persuasion. Pergamon Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon DP, Dwyer JH (1993) Estimating mediated effects in prevention studies. Evaluation Rev 17(2):144–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon DP, Krull JL, Lockwood CM (2000) Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect. Prev Sci 1(4):173–181

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon DP, Lockwood CM, Williams J (2004) Confidence limits for the indirect effect: distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivar Behav Res 39(1):99–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNair DM, Lorr M, Doppleman LF (1971) Profile of mood states, POMS. Educational and Industrial Testing Service, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Niijima A, Nagai K, Nagai N, Akagawa H (1993) Effects of light stimulation on the activity of the autonomic nerves in anesthetized rats. Physiol Behav 54:555–561

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nowlis V (1965) Research with the mood adjective checklist. In: Tomkins SS, Izard CE (eds) Affect, cognition, and personality. Springer, New York, pp 352–389

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohayon MM (2012) Determining the level of sleepiness in the American population and its correlates. J Psychiatr Res 46:422–427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park J, Banaji MR (2000) Mood and heuristics: the influence of happy and sad states on sensitivity and bias in stereotyping. J Pers Soc Psychol 78(6):1005–1023

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pejovic S, Vgontzas AN, Basta M, Tsaoussoglou M, Zoumakis E, Vgontzas A, Bixler EO, Chrousos GP (2010) Leptin and hunger levels in young healthy adults after one night of sleep loss. J Sleep Res 19:552–558

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Philip P, Taillard J, Quera-Salva MA, Bioulac B, Åkerstedt T (1999) Simple reaction time, duration of driving and sleep deprivation in young versus old automobile drivers. J Sleep Res 8:9–14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips LH, Smith L, Gilhooly KJ (2002) The effects of adult aging and induced positive and negative mood on planning. Emotion 2(3):263–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phipps-Nelson J, Redman JR, Dijk D-J, Rajaratnam SMW (2003) Daytime exposure to bright light, as compared to dim light, decreases sleepiness and improves psychomotor vigilance performance. Sleep 26(6):695–700

    Google Scholar 

  • Pilcher JJ, Ginter DR, Sadowsky B (1997) Sleep quality versus sleep quantity: relationships between sleep and measures of health, well-being and sleepiness in college students. J Psychosom Res 42(6):583–596

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher KJ, Hayes AF (2004) SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behav Res Meth Ins C 36:717–731

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher KJ, Hayes AF (2008) Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behav Res Meth 40:879–891

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson OJ, Sahakian BJ (2009) A double dissociation in the roles of serotonin and mood in healthy subjects. Biol Psychiatry 65:89–92

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Russell JA, Carroll JM (1999) On the bipolarity of positive and negative affect. Psychol Bull 125:3–30

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sack RL, Lewy AJ, White DM, Singer CM, Fireman MJ, Vandiver R (1990) Morning vs evening light treatment for winter depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47:343–351

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz N (1990) Feelings as information. Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In: Sorrentino RM, Higgins ET (eds) Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behaviour, Guilford Press, New York, Vol. 2, pp 527–561

  • Sedlmeier P, Renkewitz F (2008) Forschungsmethoden und Statistik in der Psychologie. Pearson Studium, München

    Google Scholar 

  • Shahid A, Shen J, Shapiro CM (2010) Measurements of sleepiness and fatigue. J Psychosom Res 69:81–89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skeel RL, Schutte C, van Voorst W, Nagra A (2006) The relationship between visual contrast sensitivity and neuropsychological performance in a healthy elderly sample. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 28:696–705

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith MR, Cullnan EE, Eastman CI (2008) Shaping the light/dark pattern for circadian adaptation to night shift work. Physiol Behav 95:449–456

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith-Coggins R, Rosekind MR, Hurd S, Buccino KR (1994) Relationship of day versus night sleep to physician performance and mood. Ann Emerg Med 24(5):928–934

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spiegel K, Leproult R, Cauter EV (1999) Impact of sleep dept on metabolic and endocrine function. Lancet 354:1435–1439

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steyer R, Schwenkmezger P, Notz P, Eid M (1997) Der Mehrdimensionale Befindlichkeitsfragebogen (MDBF). Handanweisung, Hogrefe, Göttingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Thayer RE (1989) The biopsychology of mood and arousal. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Tremaine R, Dorrian J, Lack L, Lovato N, Ferguson S, Zhou X, Roach G (2010) The relationship between subjective and objective sleepiness and performance during a simulated night-shift with a nap countermeasure. Appl Ergon 42:52–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood B, Froming WJ (1980) The Mood Survey: a personality measure of happy and sad moods. J Pers Assess 44:404–414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van den Berg TJTP, van Rijn LJR, Kaper-Bongers R, Vonhoff DJ, Völker-Dieben HJ, Grabner G, Nischler C, Emesz M, Wilhelm H, Gamer D, Schuster A, Franssen L, de Wit GC, Coppens JE (2009) Disability glare in the aging eye. Assessment and impact on driving. J Optom 2:112–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vgontzas AN, Pejovic S, Zoumakis E, Lin HM, Bixler EO, Basta M, Fang J, Sarrigiannidis A, Chrousos GP (2007) Daytime napping after a night of sleep loss decreases sleepiness, improves performance, and causes beneficial changes in cortisol and interleukin-6 secretion. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 292:E253–E261

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watson D, Clark LA (1992) On traits and temperament: general and specific factors of emotional experience and their relation to the five factor model. J Pers 60:441–476

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wegener DT, Petty RE, Smith SM (1995) Positive mood can increase or decrease message scrutiny: the hedonic contingency view of mood and message processing. J Pers Soc Psychol 69(1):5–15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yerkes RM, Dodson JD (1908) The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. J Comp Neurol Psychol 35:247–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler R (2010) Mood, source characteristics, and message processing: a mood-congruent expectancies approach. J Exp Soc Psychol 46:743–752

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann P, Fimm B (2002) A test battery for attentional performance. In: Leclercq M, Zimmermann P (eds) Applied neuropsychology of attention: theory Diagnosis and Rehabilitation. Psychology Press, London, pp 110–151

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The study was supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft e.V. (DFG), Germany (grant no. GR 691/13-1).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at the TU Dortmund, Ardeystr. 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany

    Veronika Kretschmer, Klaus-Helmut Schmidt & Barbara Griefahn

Authors
  1. Veronika Kretschmer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Klaus-Helmut Schmidt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Barbara Griefahn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Veronika Kretschmer.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kretschmer, V., Schmidt, KH. & Griefahn, B. Bright-light effects on cognitive performance in elderly persons working simulated night shifts: psychological well-being as a mediator?. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 86, 901–914 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-012-0826-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-012-0826-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation