Abstract
Hybridization of the lunar mantle during the overturn (sinking) of Fe- and Ti–rich ilmenite-bearing clinopyroxenite cumulates (IBC) in the lunar interior is called upon to explain the high TiO2 abundances of lunar basalts. Chemical reactions that occur after juxtaposition of IBC and mantle peridotite are poorly constrained. We experimentally investigated these reactions in experiments that adjoin an IBC glass against presynthesized dunite in a reaction couple at temperatures of 1100–1300 °C and pressures of 0.5–2.02 GPa for 0.33–31.66 h. These conditions produced experiments near to well above the solidus temperature of the IBC. Near solidus experiments produce garnet in the IBC at 2 GPa. Supersolidus experiments exhibit dissolution of olivine material into the IBC melt and the formation of clinopyroxene at the IBC melt-dunite interface. Dunite dissolution is attributed to the olivine undersaturated composition of the IBC melt. In both near- and supersolidus experiments, compositional variations produced by solid-state diffusion across the IBC melt-dunite interface are observed. When pressure increases, temperature decreases, or IBC melts become closer to olivine saturation, dissolution slows, and the effects of solid-state diffusion in the dunite become more evident. Similar chemical exchange reactions would occur in the lunar mantle as downwelling IBC and lunar peridotites are juxtaposed by cumulate overturn. Hybridized lunar mantle sources are expected to contain 47–84% normative peridotite and 16–53% IBC. Simple numerical simulations suggest that in addition to dissolution–precipitation reactions, mechanical mixing may be required to produce volumetrically significant hybridized mantle sources over geologically-relevant timescales.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data supporting the article are reported in the main text and/or the electronic supplement.
References
Anovitz LM, Treiman AH, Essene EJ et al (1985) The heat-capacity of ilmenite and phase equilibria in the system Fe-T-O. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 49:2027–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(85)90061-4
Azough F, Freer R (2000) Iron diffusion in single-crystal diopside. Phys Chem Miner 27:732–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002690000119
Barr JA, Grove TL (2013) Experimental petrology of the Apollo 15 group a green glasses: melting primordial lunar mantle and magma ocean cumulate assimilation. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 106:216–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2012.12.035
Beard BL, Taylor LA, Scherer EE et al (1998) The source region and melting mineralogy of high-titanium and low-titanium lunar basalts deduced from Lu-Hf isotope data. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 62:525–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(97)00373-6
Beck AR, Morgan ZT, Liang Y, Hess PC (2006) Dunite channels as viable pathways for mare basalt transport in the deep lunar mantle. Geophys Res Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024008
Borg LE, Carlson RW (2023) The Evolving chronology of moon formation. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 51:25–52. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-060538
Borg LE, Gaffney AM, Kruijer TS et al (2019) Isotopic evidence for a young lunar magma ocean. Earth Planet Sci Lett 523:115706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2019.07.008
Borinski SA, Hoppe U, Chakraborty S et al (2012) Multicomponent diffusion in garnets I: general theoretical considerations and experimental data for Fe–Mg systems. Contrib Miner Petrol 164:571–586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-012-0758-0
Bottinga Y, Weill DF (1970) Densities of liquid silicate systems calculated from partial molar volumes of oxide components. Amer J Sci 269:169–182. https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.269.2.169
Brady JB, McCallister RH (1983) Diffusion data for clinopyroxenes from homogenization and self-diffusion experiments. Am Miner 68:95–105
Brown SM, Grove TL (2015) Origin of the Apollo 14, 15, and 17 yellow ultramafic glasses by mixing of deep cumulate remelts. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 171:201–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2015.09.001
Buening DK, Buseck PR (1973) Fe-Mg lattice diffusion in olivine. J Geophys Res 1896–1977(78):6852–6862. https://doi.org/10.1029/JB078i029p06852
Canil D, Bellis AJ (2008) Phase equilibria in a volatile-free kimberlite at 0.1 MPa and the search for primary kimberlite magma. Lithos 105:111–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2008.02.011
Chakraborty S (1997) Rates and mechanisms of Fe-Mg interdiffusion in olivine at 980°–1300°C. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 102:12317–12331. https://doi.org/10.1029/97JB00208
Chakraborty S, Farver JR, Yund RA, Rubie DC (1994) Mg tracer diffusion in synthetic forsterite and San Carlos olivine as a function of P, T and fO2. Phys Chem Miner 21:489–500. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00203923
Chakraborty S, Ganguly J (1992) Cation diffusion in aluminosilicate garnets: experimental determination in spessartine-almandine diffusion couples, evaluation of effective binary diffusion coefficients, and applications. Contrib Miner Petrol 111:74–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00296579
Chakraborty S, Rubie DC (1996) Mg tracer diffusion in aluminosilicate garnets at 750–850° C, 1 atm. and 1300° C, 8.5 GPa. Contrib Miner Petrol 122:406–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004100050136
Charlier B, Grove TL, Namur O, Holtz F (2018) Crystallization of the lunar magma ocean and the primordial mantle-crust differentiation of the Moon. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 234:50–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2018.05.006
Cohen LH, Ito K, Kennedy GC (1967) Melting and phase relations in an anhydrous basalt to 40 kilobars. Am J Sci 265:475. https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.265.6.475
Dannberg J, Eilon Z, Faul U et al (2017) The importance of grain size to mantle dynamics and seismological observations. Geochem Geophys Geosyst 18:3034–3061. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GC006944
Deines P (1974) Temperature-oxygen fugacity tables for selected gas mixtures in the system C–H–O at one atmosphere total pressure. College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park
Delano JW (1980) Chemistry and liquidus phase relations of Apollo 15 red glass: implications for the deep lunar interior. Lunar Planet Sci Conf Proc 1:251–288
Delano JW (1986) Pristine lunar glasses: criteria, data, and implications. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 91:201–213. https://doi.org/10.1029/JB091iB04p0D201
Dimanov A, Wiedenbeck M (2006) (Fe, Mn)-Mg interdiffusion in natural diopside: effect of pO2. Eur J Mineral 18:705–718. https://doi.org/10.1127/0935-1221/2006/0018-0705
Dohmen R, Chakraborty S (2007) Fe–Mg diffusion in olivine II: point defect chemistry, change of diffusion mechanisms and a model for calculation of diffusion coefficients in natural olivine. Phys Chem Miner 34:409–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00269-007-0158-6
Draper DS, duFrane SA, Shearer CK et al (2006) High-pressure phase equilibria and element partitioning experiments on Apollo 15 green C picritic glass: implications for the role of garnet in the deep lunar interior. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 70:2400–2416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.01.027
Dygert N, Bernard RE, Behr WM (2019) Great basin mantle xenoliths record active lithospheric downwelling beneath central Nevada. Geochem Geophys Geosyst 20:751–772
Dygert N, Hirth G, Liang Y (2016) A flow law for ilmenite in dislocation creep: Implications for lunar cumulate mantle overturn. Geophys Res Lett 43:532–540. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL066546
Dygert N, Liang Y, Hess P (2013) The importance of melt TiO2 in affecting major and trace element partitioning between Fe–Ti oxides and lunar picritic glass melts. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 106:134–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2012.12.005
Dygert N, Liang Y, Sun C, Hess P (2014) An experimental study of trace element partitioning between augite and Fe-rich basalts. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 132:170–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2014.01.042
Dygert N, Lin J-F, Marshall EW et al (2017) A low viscosity lunar magma ocean forms a stratified anorthitic flotation crust with mafic poor and rich units. Geophys Res Lett. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL075703
Elardo SM, Draper DS, Shearer CK (2011) Lunar Magma ocean crystallization revisited: Bulk composition, early cumulate mineralogy, and the source regions of the highlands Mg-suite. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 75:3024–3045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2011.02.033
Elkins Tanton LT, Van Orman JA, Hager BH, Grove TL (2002) Re-examination of the lunar magma ocean cumulate overturn hypothesis: melting or mixing is required. Earth Planet Sci Lett 196:239–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00613-6
Elkins-Tanton LT, Burgess S, Yin Q-Z (2011) The lunar magma ocean: reconciling the solidification process with lunar petrology and geochronology. Earth Planet Sci Lett 304:326–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2011.02.004
Elkins-Tanton LT, Chatterjee N, Grove TL (2003) Experimental and petrological constraints on lunar differentiation from the Apollo 15 green picritic glasses. Meteorit Planet Sci 38:515–527. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.2003.tb00024.x
Elthon D, Scarfe CM (1984) High-pressure phase equilibria of a high-magnesia basalt and the genesis of primary oceanic basalts. Am Miner 69:1–15
Farver JR, Yund RA, Rubie DC (1994) Magnesium grain boundary diffusion in forsterite aggregates at 1000°–1300°C and 0.1 MPa to 10 GPa. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 99:19809–19819. https://doi.org/10.1029/94JB01250
Friel JJ, Harker RI, Ulmer GC (1977) Armalcolite stability as a function of pressure and oxygen fugacity. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 41:403–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(77)90268-X
Fujino K (1990) Direct determination of cation diffusion coefficients in pyroxene. Eos 71:943
Ganguly J, Cheng W, Chakraborty S (1998) Cation diffusion in aluminosilicate garnets: experimental determination in pyrope-almandine diffusion couples. Contrib Miner Petrol 131:171–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004100050386
Giguere TA, Taylor GJ, Hawke BR, Lucey PG (2000) The titanium contents of lunar mare basalts. Meteorit Planet Sci 35:193–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01985.x
Grove TL, Krawczynski MJ (2009) Lunar mare volcanism: where did the magmas come from? Elements 5:29–34. https://doi.org/10.2113/gselements.5.1.29
Haggerty SE (1973) Armalcolite and genetically associated opaque minerals in the lunar samples. Lunar Planet Sci Conf Proc 4:777
Haggerty SE, Lindsley DH (1970) Stability of the pseudobrookite (Fe2TiO5)-ferropseudobrookite (FeTi2O5) series. Carnegie Inst Washington Year Book 68:247–249
Haskin LA, Warren PH (1991) Lunar chemistry. In: lunar sourcebook. pp 357–474
Hess PC, Parmentier EM (1995) A model for the thermal and chemical evolution of the Moon’s interior: implications for the onset of mare volcanism. Earth Planet Sci Lett 134:501–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(95)00138-3
Hubbard NJ, Minear JW (1975) A physical and chemical model of early lunar history. In: lunar and planetary science conference proceedings. pp 1057–1085
Hughes SS, Delano JW, Schmitt RA (1990) Chemistry of individual mare volcanic glasses: evidence for distinct regions of hybridized mantle and a KREEP component in Apollo 14 magmatic sources. Lunar Planet Sci Conf Proc 20:127–138
Ito K, Kennedy GC (1971) An experimental study of the basalt-garnet granulite-eclogite transition. In: the structure and physical properties of the earth’s crust. pp 303–314
Ji D, Dygert N (2024) Trace element partitioning between apatite and silicate melts: effects of major element composition, temperature, and oxygen fugacity, and implications for the volatile element budget of the lunar magma ocean. Geochim Cosmochim Acta. 369:141–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2023.11.004
Jing J-J, Lin Y, Knibbe JS, van Westrenen W (2022) Garnet stability in the deep lunar mantle: constraints on the physics and chemistry of the interior of the Moon. Earth Planet Sci Lett 584:117491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117491
Jurewicz AJG, Watson EB (1988) Cations in olivine, part 2: diffusion in olivine xenocrysts, with applications to petrology and mineral physics. Contrib Miner Petrol 99:186–201. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00371460
Kerr RC (1995) Convective crystal dissolution. Contrib Miner Petrol 121:237–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02688239
Kraettli G, Schmidt MW, Liebske C (2022) Fractional crystallization of a basal lunar magma ocean: a dense melt-bearing garnetite layer above the core? Icarus 371:114699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114699
Krawczynski MJ, Grove TL (2012) Experimental investigation of the influence of oxygen fugacity on the source depths for high titanium lunar ultramafic magmas. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 79:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2011.10.043
Kress VC, Carmichael ISE (1991) The compressibility of silicate liquids containing Fe2O3 and the effect of composition, temperature, oxygen fugacity and pressure on their redox states. Contrib Miner Petrol 108:82–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00307328
Lange RA, Carmichael ISE (1987) Densities of Na2O-K2O-CaO-MgO-FeO-Fe2O3-Al2O3-TiO2-SiO2 liquids: new measurements and derived partial molar properties. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 51:2931–2946. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(87)90368-1
Li B, Ge J, Zhang B (2018) Diffusion in garnet: a review. Acta Geochimica 37:19–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11631-017-0187-x
Li H, Zhang N, Liang Y et al (2019) Lunar cumulate mantle overturn: a model constrained by ilmenite rheology. J Geophys Res Planets 124:1357–1378. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JE005905
Liang Y (2000) Dissolution in molten silicates: effects of solid solution. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 64:1617–1627. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(00)00331-8
Liang Y (2010) Multicomponent diffusion in molten silicates: theory, experiments, and geological applications. Rev Mineral Geochem 72:409–446. https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2010.72.9
Lin Y, Tronche EJ, Steenstra ES, van Westrenen W (2016) Solidification evolution of a dry lunar Magma ocean. Constraint Exp Petrol 47:1296
Lin Y, Tronche EJ, Steenstra ES, van Westrenen W (2017) Evidence for an early wet Moon from experimental crystallization of the lunar magma ocean. Nat Geosci 10:14–18. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2845
Longhi J (1982) Multicomponent phase diagrams and the phase equilibria of basalts. In: magmatic processes of early planetary crusts: Magma oceans and stratiform layered intrusions. p 90
Longhi J (1991) Comparative liquidus equilibria of hypersthene-normative basalts at low pressure. Am Miner 76:785–800
Longhi J (2003) A new view of lunar ferroan anorthosites: postmagma ocean petrogenesis. J Geophys Res 108(E9):5083. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JE001941
Longhi J (2006) Petrogenesis of picritic mare magmas: constraints on the extent of early lunar differentiation. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 70:5919–5934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.09.023
Longhi J, Ashwal LD (1985) Two-stage models for lunar and terrestrial anorthosites: petrogenesis without a magma ocean. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 90:C571–C584
Longhi J, Walker D, Grove TL et al (1974) The petrology of the Apollo 17 mare basalts. Lunar Planetary Sci Conf Proc 1:447–469
Longhi J, Walker D, Hays JF (1978) The distribution of Fe and Mg between olivine and lunar basaltic liquids. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 42:1545–1558. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(78)90025-X
Loomis TP, Ganguly J, Elphick SC (1985) Experimental determination of cation diffusivities in aluminosilicate garnets. Contrib Miner Petrol 90:45–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00373040
Lucey PG, Taylor GJ, Hawke BR, Spudis PD (1998) FeO and TiO2 concentrations in the South Pole-Aitken basin: implications for mantle composition and basin formation. J Geophys Res Planets 103:3701–3708. https://doi.org/10.1029/97JE03146
Mallik A, Ejaz T, Shcheka S, Garapic G (2019) A petrologic study on the effect of mantle overturn: implications for evolution of the lunar interior. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 250:238–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2019.02.014
Maurice M, Tosi N, Hüttig C (2024) Small-scale overturn of high-Ti cumulates promoted by the long lifetime of the lunar magma ocean. J Geophys Res Planets 129:e2023JE008060. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JE008060
Maurice M, Tosi N, Schwinger S et al (2020) A long-lived magma ocean on a young Moon. Sci Adv. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba8949
Morgan Z, Liang Y (2003) An experimental and numerical study of the kinetics of harzburgite reactive dissolution with applications to dunite dike formation. Earth Planet Sci Lett 214:59–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00375-3
Morgan Z, Liang Y (2005) An experimental study of the kinetics of lherzolite reactive dissolution with applications to melt channel formation. Contrib Miner Petrol 150:369–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-005-0033-8
Morgan Z, Liang Y, Hess P (2006) An experimental study of anorthosite dissolution in lunar picritic magmas: implications for crustal assimilation processes. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 70:3477–3491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.04.027
Müller T, Dohmen R, Becker HW et al (2013) Fe–Mg interdiffusion rates in clinopyroxene: experimental data and implications for Fe–Mg exchange geothermometers. Contrib Miner Petrol 166:1563–1576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-013-0941-y
Nagy KL, Lasaga AC (1992) Dissolution and precipitation kinetics of gibbsite at 80°C and pH 3: the dependence on solution saturation state. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 56:3093–3111. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(92)90291-P
Nakamura A, Schmalzried H (1984) On the Fe2+ –Mg2+-interdiffusion in olivine (II). Ber Bunsenges Phys Chem 88:140–145. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbpc.19840880212
Neal CR (2001) Interior of the moon: the presence of garnet in the primitive deep lunar mantle. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 106:27865–27885. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JE001386
Nicholis MG, Rutherford MJ (2009) Graphite oxidation in the Apollo 17 orange glass magma: Implications for the generation of a lunar volcanic gas phase. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 73:5905–5917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2009.06.022
Paces JB, Nakai S, Neal CR et al (1991) A strontium and neodymium isotopic study of Apollo 17 high-Ti mare basalts: resolution of ages, evolution of magmas, and origins of source heterogeneities. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 55:2025–2043. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(91)90040-C
Papike JJ, Ryder G, Shearer CK (1998) Lunar samples. Rev Mineral Geochem 36:5–01
Pec M, Holtzman BK, Zimmerman ME, Kohlstedt DL (2020) Influence of lithology on reactive melt flow channelization. Geochem Geophys Geosyst 21:e2020GC008937. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GC008937
Perchuk AL, Burchard M, Schertl H-P et al (2009) Diffusion of divalent cations in garnet: multi-couple experiments. Contrib Miner Petrol 157:573–592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-008-0353-6
Petry C, Chakraborty S, Palme H (2004) Experimental determination of Ni diffusion coefficients in olivine and their dependence on temperature, composition, oxygen fugacity, and crystallographic orientation. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 68:4179–4188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2004.02.024
Rapp JF, Draper DS (2018) Fractional crystallization of the lunar magma ocean: updating the dominant paradigm. Meteorit Planet Sci 53:1432–1455. https://doi.org/10.1111/maps.13086
Ringwood AE, Kesson SE (1976) A dynamic model for mare basalt petrogenesis. In: lunar and planetary science conference proceedings. pp 1697–1722
Roeder PL, Emslie RF (1970) Olivine-liquid equilibrium. Contrib Miner Petrol 29:275–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00371276
Sato M (1979) The driving mechanism of lunar pyroclastic eruptions inferred from the oxygen fugacity behaviour of Apollo 17 orange glass. Lunar and Planetary Science Conference Proceedings 1:311–325
Schmidt MW, Kraettli G (2022) Experimental crystallization of the lunar magma ocean, initial selenotherm and density stratification, and implications for crust formation, overturn and the bulk silicate moon composition. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 127:e2022JE007187. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JE007187
Shearer CK, Elardo SM, Petro NE et al (2015) Origin Of The Lunar Highlands Mg-Suite: An Integrated Petrology. Geochem Chronol Remote Sensing Perspect 100:294–325. https://doi.org/10.2138/am-2015-4817
Shearer CK, Papike JJ (1993) Basaltic magmatism on the moon: a perspective from volcanic picritic glass beads. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 57:4785–4812. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(93)90200-G
Shearer CK, Papike JJ, Galbreath KC, Shimizu N (1991) Exploring the lunar mantle with secondary ion mass spectrometry: a comparison of lunar picritic glass beads from the apollo 14 and apollo 17 sites. Earth Planet Sci Lett 102:134–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(91)90003-Z
Shepherd K, Namur O, Toplis MJ et al (2022) Trace element partitioning between clinopyroxene, magnetite, ilmenite and ferrobasaltic to dacitic magmas: an experimental study on the role of oxygen fugacity and melt composition. Contrib Miner Petrol 177:90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-022-01957-y
Singletary S, Grove T (2008) Origin of lunar high-titanium ultramafic glasses: a hybridized source? Earth Planet Sci Lett 268:182–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2008.01.019
Snyder GA, Taylor LA, Neal CR (1992) Combined equilibrium and fractional crystallization of a magma ocean and formation of the upper mantle of the Moon. In: lunar and planetary science conference
Solomon SC, Longhi J (1977) Magma oceanography. I-Thermal evolution. In: Lunar and planetary science conference proceedings. pp 583–599
Springer W, Seck HA (1997) Partial fusion of basic granulites at 5 to 15 kbar: implications for the origin of TTG magmas. Contrib Miner Petrol 127:30–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004100050263
Sprung P, Kleine T, Scherer EE (2013) Isotopic evidence for chondritic Lu/Hf and Sm/Nd of the Moon. Earth Planet Sci Lett 380:77–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.08.018
Stolper E, Walker D (1980) Melt density and the average composition of basalt. Contrib Miner Petrol 74:7–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00375484
Sun C, Liang Y (2015) A REE-in-garnet–clinopyroxene thermobarometer for eclogites, granulites and garnet peridotites. Chem Geol 393–394:79–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2014.11.014
Taylor SR (1982) Planetary science: a lunar perspective. Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston
Taylor AS, Blum JD, Lasaga AC (2000) The dependence of labradorite dissolution and Sr isotope release rates on solution saturation state. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 64:2389–2400. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(00)00361-6
Taylor GJ, Wieczorek MA (2014) Lunar bulk chemical composition: a post-gravity recovery and interior laboratory reassessment. Philos Trans Royal Soc Math Phys Eng Sci 372:20130242. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2013.0242
Thacker C, Liang Y, Peng Q, Hess P (2009) The stability and major element partitioning of ilmenite and armalcolite during lunar cumulate mantle overturn. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 73:820–836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2008.10.038
Tokle L, Hirth G, Liang Y et al (2021) The effect of pressure and Mg-content on ilmenite rheology: implications for lunar cumulate mantle overturn. J Geophys Res Planet 126:e2020JE006494. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JE006494
Unruh DM, Stille P, Patchett PJ, Tatsumoto M (1984) Lu-Hf and Sm-Nd evolution in lunar mare basalts. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 89:B459–B477. https://doi.org/10.1029/JB089iS02p0B459
Van Den Bleeken G, Müntener O, Ulmer P (2010) Reaction processes between tholeiitic melt and residual peridotite in the uppermost mantle: an experimental study at 0·8 GPa. J Petrol 51:153–183. https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egp066
van der Laan S, Zhang Y, Kennedy AK, Wyllie PJ (1994) Comparison of element and isotope diffusion of K and Ca in multicomponent silicate melts. Earth Planet Sci Lett 123:155–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(94)90264-X
Van der Wal D, Chopra P, Drury M, Gerald JF (1993) Relationships between dynamically recrystallized grain size and deformation conditions in experimentally deformed olivine rocks. Geophys Res Lett 20:1479–1482. https://doi.org/10.1029/93GL01382
Van Orman JA, Grove TL (2000) Origin of lunar high-titanium ultramafic glasses: constraints from phase relations and dissolution kinetics of clinopyroxene-ilmenite cumulates. Meteorit Planet Sci 35:783–794. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01462.x
Wagner TP, Grove TL (1997) Experimental constraints on the origin of lunar high-Ti ultramafic glasses. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61:1315–1327. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(96)00387-0
Walker D, Hays JF (1977) Plagioclase flotation and lunar crust formation. Geology 5:425–428. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1977)5%3c425:PFALCF%3e2.0.CO;2
Walker D, Longhi J, Stolper E et al (1974) Experimental petrology and origin of titaniferous lunar basalts. In: lunar and planetary science conference. p 814
Wang C, Liang Y, Xu W, Dygert N (2013) Effect of melt composition on basalt and peridotite interaction: laboratory dissolution experiments with applications to mineral compositional variations in mantle xenoliths from the North China Craton. Contrib Miner Petrol 166:1469–1488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-013-0938-6
Watson EB, Baker DR (1991) Chemical diffusion in magmas: an overview of experimental results and geochemical applications. In: Perchuk LL, Kushiro I (eds) Physical chemistry of magmas. Springer, New York, New York, NY, pp 120–151
Watson EB, Sneeringer MA, Ross A (1982) Diffusion of dissolved carbonate in magmas: experimental results and applications. Earth Planet Sci Lett 61:346–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(82)90065-6
Weitz CM, Rutherford MJ, Head JW (1997) Oxidation states and ascent history of the Apollo 17 volcanic beads as inferred from metal-glass equilibria. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61:2765–2775. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(97)00119-1
Wood JA, Dickey JS Jr, Marvin UB, Powell BN (1970) Lunar anorthosites and a geophysical model of the moon. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta Supplement 1:965
Wyatt BA (1977) The melting and crystallisation behaviour of a natural clinopyroxene-ilmenite intergrowth. Contrib Miner Petrol 61:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00375941
Xirouchakis DM (2007) Pseudobrookite-group oxide solutions and basaltic melts. Lithos 95:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2006.07.009
Xirouchakis D, Hirschmann MM, Simpson JA (2001) The effect of titanium on the silica content and on mineral-liquid partitioning of mantle-equilibrated melts. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 65:2201–2217. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(00)00549-4
Xirouchakis D, Smirnov A, Woody K et al (2002) Thermodynamics and stability of pseudobrookite-type MgTi2O5 (karrooite). Am Miner 87:658–667. https://doi.org/10.2138/am-2002-5-608
Yao L, Liang Y (2012) An Experimental Study of the Solidus of a Hybrid Lunar Cumulate Mantle: Implications for the Temperature at the Core-Mantle Boundary of the Moon. In: 43rd Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. p 2258
Zhang N, Ding M, Zhu M-H et al (2022) Lunar compositional asymmetry explained by mantle overturn following the South Pole-Aitken impact. Nat Geosci 15:37–41. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-021-00872-4
Zhang N, Dygert N, Liang Y, Parmentier EM (2017) The effect of ilmenite viscosity on the dynamics and evolution of an overturned lunar cumulate mantle. Geophys Res Lett 44:6543–6552. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL073702
Zhang X, Ganguly J, Ito M (2010a) Ca–Mg diffusion in diopside: tracer and chemical inter-diffusion coefficients. Contrib Miner Petrol 159:175–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-009-0422-5
Zhang Y (1993) A modified effective binary diffusion model. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 98:11901–11920. https://doi.org/10.1029/93JB00422
Zhang Y (2009) Geochemical kinetics. Princetion University Press, Princetion
Zhang Y, Ni H, Chen Y (2010b) Diffusion data in silicate Melts. Rev Mineral Geochem 72:311–408. https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2010.72.8
Zhang Y, Walker D, Lesher CE (1989) Diffusive crystal dissolution. Contrib Miner Petrol 102:492–513. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00371090
Zhang Y, Xu Z (2003) Kinetics of convective crystal dissolution and melting, with applications to methane hydrate dissolution and dissociation in seawater. Earth Planet Sci Lett 213:133–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00297-8
Zhao Y, de Vries J, van den Berg AP et al (2019) The participation of ilmenite-bearing cumulates in lunar mantle overturn. Earth Planet Sci Lett 511:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2019.01.022
Acknowledgements
We thank A. Patchen at the University of Tennessee for his assistance with EPMA analysis, and Malcolm Rutherford at Brown University who conditioned the IBC starting materials while a conditioning furnace at the University of Tennessee was under development. The manuscript benefited greatly from the comments and suggestions of the editor Othmar Müntener as well as Yanhao Lin and an anonymous reviewer. This work was supported by NASA Solar System Workings award 80NSSC20K0467 to ND.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by Othmar Müntener.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Scholpp, J.L., Dygert, N. Experimental insights into the mineralogy and melt-rock reactions produced by lunar cumulate mantle overturn. Contrib Mineral Petrol 179, 58 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-024-02134-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-024-02134-z