Abstract
Purpose
This systematic review aimed to synthesize the available evidence on the effects of a high-protein diet on appetite sensations in individuals with overweight and obesity.
Methods
Two authors independently conducted literature searches, study selection, design of the method, and quality appraisal. The main inclusion criteria were studies involving protocols that present a protein intake greater than 1.2 g/kg/day or 25% of the total daily energy content compared to a normal protein diet, i.e., 0.8–1.2 g/kg/day or 15%–20% of the total energy content. Studies that evaluated test meals or diet within a period of less than 7 days and participants with diabetes, cancer, or other specific conditions were excluded from this review. The literature search was updated until November 2019 using the main databases available.
Results
Of a total of 4191 records, ten articles met the inclusion criteria and included a total of 1079 subjects. In six studies, participants experienced enhanced fullness or satiety in response to a high-dietary protein intake, of which four studies had an intervention period of 10–12 weeks.
Conclusion
Our results suggest that among individuals with overweight or obesity, higher dietary protein intake may influence appetite sensations by enhancing fullness or satiety. The low level of evidence, due to the heterogeneity of the protocols and the high risk of bias, highlights the need for further studies to confirm these results.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Astrup A, Raben A, Geiker N (2015) The role of higher protein diets in weight control and obesity-related comorbidities. Int J Obes 39:721–726. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2014.216
Leidy HJ, Clifton PM, Astrup A et al (1329S) The role of protein in weight loss and maintenance. Am J Clin Nutr 101:1320S–1329S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.084038
Gwin JA, Maki KC, Leidy HJ (2017) Increased protein consumption during the day from an energy-restricted diet augments satiety but does not reduce daily fat or carbohydrate intake on a free-living test day in overweight women. J Nutr 147:2338–2346. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.117.255554
Li J, Armstrong CLHH, Campbell WW (2016) Effects of dietary protein source and quantity during weight loss on appetite, energy expenditure, and cardio-metabolic responses. Nutrients 8:9–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8020063
Dhillon J, Craig BA, Leidy HJ et al (2016) The effects of increased protein intake on fullness: a meta-analysis and its limitations. J Acad Nutr Diet 116:968–983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2016.01.003
Tremblay A, Bellisle F (2015) Nutrients, satiety, and control of energy intake. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 40:971–979. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2014-0549
Larsen TM, Dalskov S-M, van Baak M et al (2010) Diets with high or low protein content and glycemic index for weight-loss maintenance. N Engl J Med 363:2102–2113. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1007137
Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J et al (2009) The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. PLOS Med 6(7):e1000100. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000100
Rodriguez NR (1319S) Introduction to protein summit 2.0: continued exploration of the impact of high-quality protein on optimal health. Am J Clin Nutr 101:1317S–1319S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.083980
McGowan J, Sampson M, Salzwedel DM et al (2016) PRESS peer review of electronic search strategies: 2015 guideline statement. J Clin Epidemiol 75:40–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2016.01.021
Ouzzani M, Hammady H, Fedorowicz Z, Elmagarmid A (2016) Rayyan-a web and mobile app for systematic reviews. Syst Rev 5:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-016-0384-4
Joanna Briggs Institute (2017) Checklist for randomized controlled trials. Joanna Briggs Inst. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1000960
Layman DK, Boileau RA, Erickson DJ et al (2003) A reduced ratio of dietary carbohydrate to protein improves body composition and blood lipid profiles during weight loss in adult women. J Nutr 133:411–417. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/133.2.411
Leidy HJ, Carnell NS, Mattes RDCW (2007) Higher protein intake preserves lean mass and satiety with weight loss in pre-obese and obese women. Obesity 15:421–429
Leidy HJ, Mattes RD, Campbell WW (2007) Effects of acute and chronic protein intake on metabolism, appetite, and ghrelin during weight loss. Obes (Silver Spring) 15:1215–1225. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2007.143
Leidy HJ, Tang MH, Armstrong CLH et al (2011) The effects of consuming frequent, higher protein meals on appetite and satiety during weight loss in overweight/obese men. Obesity 19:818–824
Sacks FM, Bray GA, Carey VJ et al (2009) Comparison of weight-loss with different compositions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. N Engl J Med 360:859–873. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0804748.Comparison
Walsh CO, Ebbeling CB, Swain JF et al (2013) Effects of diet composition on postprandial energy availability during weight loss maintenance. PLoS ONE 8:e58172–e58172. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058172
Tischmann L, Drummen M, Gatta-Cherifi B et al (2019) Effects of a high-protein/moderate-carbohydrate diet on appetite, gut peptides, and endocannabinoids-a preview study. Nutrients 11:2269–2286. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11102269
Cheng HL, Griffin H, Claes BE et al (2014) Influence of dietary macronutrient composition on eating behaviour and self-perception in young women undergoing weight management. Eat Weight Disord 19:241–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-014-0110-y
Mollahosseini M, Shab-Bidar S, Rahimi MH, Djafarian K (2017) Effect of whey protein supplementation on long and short term appetite: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Nutr Espen 20:34–40
Belza A, Ritz C, Sorensen MQ et al (2013) Contribution of gastroenteropancreatic appetite hormones to protein-induced satiety. Am J Clin Nutr 97:980–989
Woods SC (2013) Metabolic signals and food intake. Forty years of progress. Appetite 71:440–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.08.016
Rolls BJ, Hetherington M, Burley VJ (1988) The specificity of satiety: the influence of foods of different macronutrient content on the development of satiety. Physiol Behav 43:145–153
Poppitt SD, McCorMacK D, Buffenstein R (1998) Short-term effects of macronutrient preloads on appetite and energy intake in lean women. Physiol Behav 64:279–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9384(98)00061-4
Smeets AJ, Soenen S, Luscombe-Marsh ND et al (2008) Energy expenditure, satiety, and plasma ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide 1, and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine concentrations following a single high-protein lunch. J Nutr 138:698–702. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/138.4.698
Clifton PM, Keogh JB, Noakes M (2008) Long-term effects of a high-protein weight-loss diet. Am J Clin Nutr 87:23–29. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/87.1.23
Lejeune MPG, Westerterp KR, Adam TCM, Luscombe-Marsh ND, Westerterp-Plantenga MS (2006) Ghrelin and glucagon-like peptide 1 concentrations, 24-h satiety, and energy and substrate metabolism during a high-protein diet and measured in a respiration. Am J Clin Nutr 83:89–94
Weigle DS, Breen PA, Matthys CC et al (2005) A high-protein diet induces sustained reductions in appetite, ad libitum caloric intake, and body weight despite compensatory changes in diurnal plasma leptin and ghrelin concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr 82:41–48
Raben A, Agerholsm-Larsen L, Flint A et al (2003) Meals with similar energy densities but rich in protein, fat, effects on energy expenditure not on appetite and energy intake. Am J Clin Nutr 77:91–100
Kjolbaek L, Sorensen LB (2017) Protein supplements after weight loss do not improve weight maintenance compared with recommended dietary protein intake despite beneficial effects on appetite sensation and energy expenditure: a randomized, controlled, double-blinded trial. Am J Clin Trial 106:684–697. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.129528
Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Lejeune MPGM, Nijs I et al (2004) High protein intake sustains weight maintenance after body weight loss in humans. Int J Obes 28:57–64. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0802461
Anton SD, Gallagher J, Carey VJ et al (2012) Diet type and changes in food cravings following weight loss: findings from the POUNDS LOST Trial. Eat Weight Disord Anorex Bulim Obes 17:E101–E108
Arciero PJ, Gentile CL, Martin-Pressman R et al (2006) Increased dietary protein and combined high intensity aerobic and resistance exercise improves body fat distribution and cardiovascular risk factors. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 16:373–392. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.16.4.373
Rizi EP, Loh TP, Baig S et al (2018) A high carbohydrate, but not fat or protein meal attenuates postprandial ghrelin, PYY and GLP-1 responses in Chinese men. PLoS ONE 13:e0191609
Worthington BS, Taylor LE (1974) Balanced low calorie vs. high protein low carbohydrate reducing diets. J Am Diet Assoc 64:47–51
Bayham BE, Greenway FL, Johnson WD, Dhurandhar NV (2014) A randomized trial to manipulate the quality instead of quantity of dietary proteins to influence the markers of satiety. J Diabetes Complicat 28:547–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2014.02.002
Johnstone AM, Horgan GW, Murison SD et al (2008) Effects of a high-protein ketogenic diet on hunger, appetite, and weight loss in obese men feeding ad libitum. Am J Clin Nutr 87:44–55
Nickols-Richardson SM, Coleman MD, Volpe JJ, Hosig KW (2005) Perceived hunger is lower and weight loss is greater in overweight premenopausal women consuming a low-carbohydrate/high-protein vs high-carbohydrate/low-fat diet. J Am Diet Assoc 105:1433–1437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2005.06.025
Wadden TA, Stunkard AJ, Day SC et al (1987) Less food, less hunger: Reports of appetite and symptoms in a controlled study of a protein-sparing modified fast. Int J Obes 11:239–249
Belza A, Ritz C, Sørensen MQ et al (2013) Contribution of gastroenteropancreatic appetite hormones to protein-induced satiety. Am J Clin Nutr 97:980–989. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.047563
Bonnema AL, Slavin JL (2014) Effects of the combination of protein and fiber in whole foods on satiety, blood glucose response and food intake in humans. University of Minnesota
Brennan IM, Luscombe-Marsh ND, Seimon RV et al (2012) Effects of fat, protein, and carbohydrate and protein load on appetite, plasma cholecystokinin, peptide YY, and ghrelin, and energy intake in lean and obese men. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 303:G129–G140. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00478.2011
Erdmann J, Leibl M, Wagenpfeil S et al (2006) Ghrelin response to protein and carbohydrate meals in relation to food intake and glycerol levels in obese subjects. Regul Pept 135:23–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regpep.2006.03.003
Essah PA, Levy JR, Sistrun SN et al (2007) Effect of macronutrient composition on postprandial peptide YY levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:4052–4055. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2006-2273
Holt SH, Miller JC, Petocz P, Farmakalidis E (1995) A satiety index of common foods. Eur J Clin Nutr 49:675–690
Jakubowicz D, Froy O, Wainstein J, Boaz M (2012) Meal timing and composition influence ghrelin levels, appetite scores and weight loss maintenance in overweight and obese adults. Steroids 77:323–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.steroids.2011.12.006
Leidy HJ, Armstrong CLH, Tang MH et al (2010) The influence of higher protein intake and greater eating frequency on appetite control in overweight and obese men. Obesity 18:1725–1732
Neumann BL, Dunn A, Johnson D et al (2016) Breakfast macronutrient composition influences thermic effect of feeding and fat oxidation in young women who habitually skip breakfast. Nutrients. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8080490
Palacios OM, Edirisinghe I, Wilcox ML et al (2018) A lean pork-containing breakfast reduces hunger and glycemic response compared to a refined carbohydrate-containing breakfast in adults with prediabetes. J Am Coll Nutr 37:293–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2017.1396266
Drew Sayer R, Amankwaah AF, Tamer GG et al (2016) Effects of dietary protein and fiber at breakfast on appetite, ad Libitum energy intake at lunch, and neural responses to visual food stimuli in overweight adults. Nutrients. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8010021
Teff KL, Young SN, Blundell JE (1989) The effect of protein or carbohydrate breakfasts on subsequent plasma amino acid levels, satiety and nutrient selection in normal males. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 34:829–837
Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Ijedema MJW, Wijckmans-Duijsens NEG (1996) The role of macronutrient selection in determining patterns of food intake in obese and non-obese women. Eur J Clin Nutr 50:580–591
Arguin H, Tremblay A, Blundell JE et al (2017) Impact of a non-restrictive satiating diet on anthropometrics, satiety responsiveness and eating behaviour traits in obese men displaying a high or a low satiety phenotype. Br J Nutr 118:750–760. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114517002549
Beasley JM, Ange BA, Anderson CAM et al (2009) Associations between macronutrient intake and self-reported appetite and fasting levels of appetite hormones: Results from the optimal macronutrient intake trial to prevent heart disease. Am J Epidemiol 169:893–900. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn415
Leidy HJ, Ortinau LC, Douglas SM, Hoertel HA (2012) Effects of increased dietary protein at breakfast on appetite control and energy intake throughout the day in overweight “breakfast skipping” teen girls. Faseb J 26:20814. https://doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.26.1
Lejeune MPGM, Westerterp KR, Adam TCM et al (2006) Ghrelin and glucagon-like peptide 1 concentrations, 24-h satiety, and energy and substrate metabolism during a high-protein diet and measured in a respiration chamber. Am J Clin Nutr 83:89–94. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00478.2011
Rains TM, Leidy HJ, Sanoshy KD et al (2015) A randomized, controlled, crossover trial to assess the acute appetitive and metabolic effects of sausage and egg-based convenience breakfast meals in overweight premenopausal women. Nutr J. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-015-0002-7
Samkani A, Skytte MJ, Thomsen MN et al (2018) Acute effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction on glycemia, lipemia and appetite regulating hormones in normal-weight to obese subjects. Nutrients. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10091285
Tatano H, Yamanaka-Okumura H, Zhou B et al (2016) Association of habitual high-fat intake and desire for protein and sweet food. J Med Investig 63:241–247
Watson NA, Dyer KA, Buckley JD et al (2018) Reductions in food cravings are similar with low-fat weight loss diets differing in protein and carbohydrate in overweight and obese adults with type 2 diabetes: a randomized clinical trial. Nutr Res 57:56–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2018.05.005
Belza A, Sorensen MQ, Holst JJ et al (2011) Protein dose-response effect on glp-1, pyy and appetite in male subjects. Obes Rev Suppl 1:38–62
Gwin JA (2016) Effects of increased dietary protein on daily appetite control, satiety, and free-living ad libitum food intake during acute energy restriction in healthy, overweight women. FASEB J 30:10–12. https://doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.30.1
Johnstone AM, Fyfe C, Horgan GW (2010) Weight loss and appetite with vegetarian and meat rich high protein diets. Obes Rev 11:41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00763-4.x
Le NT, Hu Q, Abdul MMS et al (2017) Consumption of a 4-week, carbohydrate-restricted diet improves food intake motivation in overweight subjects. Faseb J 31:636–720
Leidy HJ, Armstrong CLH, Mattes RD, Campbell WW (2009) The Impact of increased dietary protein and meal frequency on appetite control in overweight and obese men. Obesity 17:S261–S261
Leidy H, Roenfeldt C, Alwattar A, Shafer R (2015) The acute effects of protein quantity and distribution on appetite control, satiety, and food intake in overweight young women. Faseb J 29:270–278
Leidy HJ, Hoertel HA, Douglas SM, Shafer RS (2013) Daily addition of a protein-rich breakfast for long-term improvements in energy intake regulation and body weight management in overweight and obese “breakfast skipping” young people. Faseb J 27:249–257
Maloney NG, Stephen S, Fyfe CL et al (2015) The effect of a high protein diet on enhanced satiety and weight loss in over weight men and women. Proc Nutr Soc. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665115001202
Rao M, Avalos M, Wildman R, DiMarco N (2016) Effects of low calorie high-protein, and high-carbohydrate breakfasts on metabolic and glycemic responses and food perceptions in overweight women. FASEB J Conf Exp Biol 30:1164–1168
Shafer R (2016) Protein quantity, quality, and distribution have no effect on daily appetite control, satiety, or free living, ad libitum food intake during energy balance in healthy, overweight women. FASEB J 30:1164–1211
Soenen S, Westerterp-Plantenga MS (2010) Elevated protein or decreased carbohydrate for weight loss and weight maintenance? Obes Rev 11:399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00763-7.x
Wilson HK, Armstrong CLH, Hogan JA, Campbell WW (2012) Effects of protein quantity and source (animal versus plant) on appetite and plasma amino acid responses in energy-restricted subjects. Faseb J 26
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Dr. Ana Cláudia Morais Godoy Figueiredo for her contributions to the PRESS protocol.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
de Carvalho, K.M.B., Pizato, N., Botelho, P.B. et al. Dietary protein and appetite sensations in individuals with overweight and obesity: a systematic review. Eur J Nutr 59, 2317–2332 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-020-02321-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-020-02321-1