Abstract
Social animals use complex communication to maintain social bonds. For pair-bonded animals in particular, acoustic communication is vital to reinforcing bonds and coordinating various behaviors within the bonded pair. Pair consistency in duets can be influenced by the time since pairing and may serve multiple functions; two of note are pair-bond reinforcement and advertisement of the relationship to conspecifics. Here, we assess the potential for pair consistency and plasticity in timing of vocalizations in 50 wild Northern gray gibbons (Hylobates funereus) from seven sites in Sabah, Malaysia. Specifically, we looked at the timing of the female gibbon’s great call and the subsequent male coda, the male duet contribution that follows the female great call (coda timing), and the duration of the male coda (coda duration). We found that for coda timing, pair-level variance was the most important source of variance, as opposed to intra-individual or inter-site variance. In contrast, for coda duration, individual-level variance was the most important source of variance. We also found that variability in the duration of female calls was not correlated with the timing or duration of male codas. Our results are consistent with previous work showing pair consistency in other paired, duetting species and contribute to the growing body of literature indicating that primate vocalizations—rather than being inflexible and innate—have a high degree of plasticity. Future work should aim to understand both how gibbons coordinate their duets and what impact this coordination may have on quality of the pair’s bond.
Significance statement
Duetting is seen across a diverse range of taxa, but in only a few nonhuman primates including indris, tarsiers, titi monkeys, and gibbons. Duetting in primates co-occurs with a suite of behavioral traits that include territoriality and pair bonding. Although the functions of primate duets remain a topic of debate, it is clear that duets provide information to neighboring conspecifics about the calling animal(s). Our results indicate that gibbon duets may contain information about pair identity. Investigating how duration of the pair bond influences either pair-level signatures or consistency of male timing will be an important next step in understanding the proximate influences that shape gibbon duet structure.
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Data availability
Access to raw sound files is available upon request to the corresponding author. Data needed to recreate analyses presented in the manuscript are provided as Online Supplementary Material.
Code availability
All R code and data needed to recreate the analyses is available as Online Supplementary Material.
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Karen Bales for her excellent mentorship and support. We greatly appreciate Maryam Zafar for her hard work annotating gibbon recordings. We thank Ashakur Rahaman for his assistance with making the map in Fig. 1. DJC thanks the many research assistants that helped with data collection. We thank two anonymous reviewers for their substantial effort in improving this manuscript. And our final thanks go to the animals who provided the recordings included in this project.
Funding
Funding to conduct this research was kindly provided to DJC by Primate Conservation, Inc., Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, the American Primatological Society, and the Fulbright US Student Program.
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The research complied with all applicable laws in Malaysia and the USA. Permission to conduct research at the Stability of Altered Forest Ecosystems site was kindly granted by the Sabah Biodiversity Centre JKM/MBS 1000–2/2(90). Data collection approval was granted by the Sabah Biodiversity Council JKM/MBS 1000–2/2 JLD.3 (42) and data were collected in accordance with the University of California, Davis, Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) Protocol 29–30.
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Lau, A.R., Zafar, M., Ahmad, A.H. et al. Investigating temporal coordination in the duet contributions of a pair-living small ape. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 76, 91 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-022-03193-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-022-03193-7