Abstract
This study aims to investigate surface roughness, microstructure, and mechanical properties of overhead thin-wall structures of stainless steel(SS316L) fabricated by cold metal transfer (CMT)-based wire + arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). In the first stage, single-layer bead experiments were carried out in flat and overhead positions utilizing Box-Behnken experimental design with a range of process parameters (i.e., wire feed rate, travel speed, and weave amplitude). To study the effect of individual process parameters on the bead geometry and identify a process window, analysis of variance(ANOVA) is performed using the bead cross-section measurement data. For single layer bead experiments in flat and overhead position, out of all process parameters, the weave amplitude is the most significant parameter on bead width, whereas travel speed is most significant parameter for bead height. Based on single-layer bead experiments, process parameters for thin wall deposition were identified. In the second stage, two thin-walls were deposited with wire feed rates of 1000 and 1500 mm/min in the overhead position. The surface roughness was measured using cloud point data acquired from the coordinate measuring machine(CMM). The deposited structure with the wire feed rate of 1500 mm/min resulted in better surface quality. It was also observed that, microstructure was composed of austenite and dendritic delta ferrite. The microstructure changed as the deposition height increased. The average microhardness value was measured 183 HV and 187.4 HV for the overhead structures. Average tensile properties of the SS316L overhead structures were comparable to that of SS316L fabricated by other WAAM processes.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Mostafaei A, Ghiaasiaan R, Ho I-T, Strayer S, Chang K-C, Shamsaei N, Shao S, Paul S, Yeh A-C, Tin S, To AC (2023) Additive manufacturing of nickel-based superalloys: a state-of-the-art review on process-structure-defect-property relationship. Prog Mater Sci 136:101108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2023.101108
ISO/ASTM 52900:2021(en) Additive manufacturing — General principles — Fundamentals and vocabulary. https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso-astm:52900:ed-2:v1:en
Ahsan MRU, Tanvir ANM, Ross T, Elsawy A, Oh MS, Kim DB (2019) Fabrication of bimetallic additively manufactured structure (BAMS) of low carbon steel and 316L austenitic stainless steel with wire + arc additive manufacturing. Rapid Prototyp J 26:519–530. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-09-2018-0235
Mostafaei A, Zhao C, He Y, Reza Ghiaasiaan S, Shi B, Shao S, Shamsaei N, Wu Z, Kouraytem N, Sun T, Pauza J, Gordon JV, Webler B, Parab ND, Asherloo M, Guo Q, Chen L, Rollett AD (2022) Defects and anomalies in powder bed fusion metal additive manufacturing. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci 26:100974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cossms.2021.100974
Frazier WE (2014) Metal additive manufacturing: a review. J Mater Eng Perform 23:1917–1928. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11665-014-0958-Z/FIGURES/9
Li Y, Su C, Zhu J (2022) Comprehensive review of wire arc additive manufacturing: hardware system, physical process, monitoring, property characterization, application and future prospects. Results Eng 13:100330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2021.100330
Srivastava M, Rathee S, Tiwari A, Dongre M (2023) Wire arc additive manufacturing of metals: a review on processes, materials and their behaviour. Mater Chem Phys 294:126988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2022.126988
Tomar B, Shiva S, Nath T (2022) A review on wire arc additive manufacturing: Processing parameters, defects, quality improvement and recent advances. Mater Today Commun 31:103739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.103739
Nycz A, Adediran AI, Noakes MW, Love LJ (2016) Large scale metal additive techniques review. Solid Free Fabr 2016 Proc 27th Annu Int Solid Free Fabr Symp - An Addit Manuf Conf SFF 2016:2001–2006
Relativity Space nears launch of first 3D-printed rocket (n.d.) https://mynews13.com/fl/orlando/news/2022/08/17/relativity-space-nears-launch-of-first-3d-printed-rocket. Accessed 5 Aug 2023
Lehmann T, Rose D, Ranjbar E, Ghasri-Khouzani M, Tavakoli M, Henein H, Wolfe T, Jawad Qureshi A (2022) Large-scale metal additive manufacturing: a holistic review of the state of the art and challenges. Int Mater Rev 67:410–459. https://doi.org/10.1080/09506608.2021.1971427
Ding Y, Kovacevic R (2016) Feasibility study on 3-D printing of metallic structural materials with robotized laser-based metal additive manufacturing. JOM 68:1774–1779. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-016-1929-7
Chakkravarthy V, Jerome S (2020) Printability of multiwalled SS 316L by wire arc additive manufacturing route with tunable texture. Mater Lett 260:126981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.126981
Xie B, Xue J, Ren X (2020) Wire arc deposition additive manufacturing and experimental study of 316L stainless steel by CMT + P process. Metals (Basel) 10(11):1419. https://doi.org/10.3390/met10111419
Xiong J, Lei Y, Chen H, Zhang G (2017) Fabrication of inclined thin-walled parts in multi-layer single-pass GMAW-based additive manufacturing with flat position deposition. J Mater Process Technol 240:397–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.10.019
Panchagnula JS, Simhambhatla S (2015) Additive manufacturing of complex shapes through weld-deposition and feature based slicing. ASME Int Mech Eng Congr Expo Proc 2A-2015. https://doi.org/10.1115/IMECE2015-51583
Zhao Y, Li F, Chen S, Lu Z (2020) Direct fabrication of inclined thin-walled parts by exploiting inherent overhanging capability of CMT process. Rapid Prototyp J 26:499–508. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-03-2019-0081
Li Y, Qin X, Wu Q, Hu Z, Shao T (2020) Fabrication of curved overhanging thin-walled structure with robotic wire and arc additive manufacturing (RWAAM). Ind Robot Int J Robot Res Appl 47:102–110. https://doi.org/10.1108/IR-05-2019-0112
Baek S-Y, Nam J-H (2021) Physical welding factors for reclassified welding positions in shipbuilding assembly process based on muscle activity measured by surface electromyography. J Mar Sci Eng 9(11):1211. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9111211
Nguyen MC, Medale M, Asserin O, Gounand S, Gilles P (2017) Sensitivity to welding positions and parameters in GTA welding with a 3D multiphysics numerical model. Numer Heat Transf Part A Appl 71:233–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/10407782.2016.1264747
Park J-H, Kim S-H, Moon H-S, Kim M-H (2019) Influence of gravity on molten pool behavior and analysis of microstructure on various welding positions in pulsed gas metal arc welding. Appl Sci 9(21):4626. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9214626
Yaakub MY, Tham G, Abd Rahim WMAW, MohdRadzi MAR, Mahmud A (2013) Prediction of welding parameters and weld bead geometry for GMAW process in overhead T-fillet welding position(4F). Adv Mater Res 686:320–324. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.686.320
Kang N, Singh J, Kulkarni AK (2003) Effects of gravitational orientation on the microstructural evolution of gas tungsten arc welds in an Al-4 wt% Cu alloy. J Mater Sci 38:3579–3589. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025617128625
Kang N, Mahank TA, Kulkarni AK, Singh J (2003) Effects of gravitational orientation on surface deformation and weld pool geometry during gas tungsten arc welding. Mater Manuf Process 18:169–180. https://doi.org/10.1081/AMP-120018903
Hu Z, Hua L, Qin X, Ni M, Ji F, Wu M (2021) Molten pool behaviors and forming appearance of robotic GMAW on complex surface with various welding positions. J Manuf Process 64:1359–1376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.02.061
Murphy AB (2013) Influence of droplets in gas–metal arc welding: new modelling approach, and application to welding of aluminium. Sci Technol Weld Join 18:32–37. https://doi.org/10.1179/1362171812Y.0000000069
Ogino Y, Hirata Y (2015) Numerical simulation of metal transfer in argon gas-shielded GMAW. Weld World 59:465–473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-015-0221-8
Ogino Y, Hirata Y, Murphy AB (2016) Numerical simulation of GMAW process using Ar and an Ar–CO2 gas mixture. Weld World 60:345–353. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-015-0287-3
Zhao Y, Chung H (2017) Numerical simulation of droplet transfer behavior in variable polarity gas metal arc welding. Int J Heat Mass Transf 111:1129–1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.04.090
Zhao W, Wei Y, Long J, Chen J, Liu R, Ou W (2021) Modeling and simulation of heat transfer, fluid flow and geometry morphology in GMAW-based wire arc additive manufacturing. Weld World 65:1571–1590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-021-01123-1
Wang X, Huang Y, Zhang Y (2013) Droplet transfer model for laser-enhanced GMAW. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 64:207–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-012-4014-6
Haidar J, Lowke JJ (1996) Predictions of metal droplet formation in arc welding. J Phys D Appl Phys 29:2951. https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/29/12/003
Choi JH, Lee J, Yoo CD (2001) Dynamic force balance model for metal transfer analysis in arc welding. J Phys D Appl Phys 34:2658. https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/34/17/313
Dordlofva C, Törlind P (2020) Evaluating design uncertainties in additive manufacturing using design artefacts: Examples from space industry. Des Sci 6. https://doi.org/10.1017/dsj.2020.11
Chen H, Yaseer A, Zhang Y (2022) Top surface roughness modeling for robotic wire arc additive manufacturing. J Manuf Mater Process 6(2):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp6020039
Ding D, He F, Yuan L, Pan Z, Wang L, Ros M (2021) The first step towards intelligent wire arc additive manufacturing: an automatic bead modelling system using machine learning through industrial information integration. J Ind Inf Integr 23:100218 https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233649154
Yehorov Y, da Silva LJ, Scotti A (2019) Balancing WAAM production costs and wall surface quality through parameter selection: a case study of an Al-Mg5 alloy multilayer-non-oscillated single pass wall. J Manuf Mater Process 3(2):32. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp3020032
Li B, Wang B, Zhu G, Zhang L, Lu B (2021) Low-roughness-surface additive manufacturing of metal-wire feeding with small power. Materials (Basel) 14:1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154265
Selvi S, Vishvaksenan A, Rajasekar E (2018) Cold metal transfer (CMT) technology - An overview. Def Technol 14:28–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2017.08.002
Jafarzad-Shayan MM, Zarei-Hanzaki A, Moshiri A, Seop Kim H, Haftlang F, Tahaghoghi M, Mahmoudi M, Momeni M, Abedi HR (2023) Microstructural heterogeneity and exceptional mechanical properties in a wire-arc additively manufactured stainless steel. Mater Sci Eng A 882:145473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2023.145473
Senthil TS, Babu SR, Puviyarasan M, Balachandar VS (2023) Experimental investigations on the multi-layered SS316L wall fabricated by CMT-based WAAM: Mechanical and microstructural studies. J Alloy Metall Syst 2:100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalmes.2023.100013
Gowthaman PS, Jeyakumar S, Sarathchandra D (2023) Effect of heat input on microstructure and mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing. J Mater Eng Perform. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-023-08312-7
Vora J, Parmar H, Chaudhari R, Khanna S, Doshi M, Patel V (2022) Experimental investigations on mechanical properties of multi-layered structure fabricated by GMAW-based WAAM of SS316L. J Mater Res Technol 20:2748–2757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.08.074
Chen X, Li J, Cheng X, He B, Wang H, Huang Z (2017) Microstructure and mechanical properties of the austenitic stainless steel 316L fabricated by gas metal arc additive manufacturing. Mater Sci Eng A 703:567–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.05.024
American Society for Testing and Materials (2004) ASTM A240: Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate , Sheet , and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications. ASTM Int I:12. https://doi.org/10.1520/A0240
ASTMA666-15 (2015) Standard Test; Specification for Annealed or Cold-Worked Austenitic StainlessSteel Sheet, Strip, Plate, and Flat Bar. ASTM Int: 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1520/A0666-23.2
Long P, Wen D, Min J, Zheng Z, Li J, Liu Y (2021) Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of a wire-arc additive manufactured austenitic stainless steel: Effect of processing parameter. Materials (Basel) 14(7):1681. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14071681
Traidia A (2011) Multiphysics modelling and numerical simulation of GTA weld pools, PhD diss., Ecole Polytechnique X. https://pastel.hal.science/pastel-00709055/
Cho D-W, Park J-H, Moon H-S (2019) A study on molten pool behavior in the one pulse one drop GMAW process using computational fluid dynamics. Int J Heat Mass Transf 139:848–859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.05.038
Kou S, Sun DK (1985) Fluid flow and weld penetration in stationary arc welds. Metall Trans A 16:203–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02815302
Cheon J, Kiran DV, Na S-J (2016) CFD based visualization of the finger shaped evolution in the gas metal arc welding process. Int J Heat Mass Transf 97:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.01.067
Sahoo P, Debroy T, McNallan MJ (1988) Surface tension of binary metal—surface active solute systems under conditions relevant to welding metallurgy. Metall Trans B 19:483–491. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02657748
Cho W-I, Na S (2021) Impact of driving forces on molten pool in gas metal arc welding. Weld World 65:1735–1747 https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234476295
Jin W, Zhang C, Jin S, Tian Y, Wellmann D, Liu W (2020) Wire arc additive manufacturing of stainless steels: a review. Appl Sci 10(5):1563. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10051563
Kou S (2002) Welding metallurgy. Weld Metall. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471434027
Song B, Zhao X, Li S, Han C, Wei Q, Wen S, Liu J, Shi Y (2015) Differences in microstructure and properties between selective laser melting and traditional manufacturing for fabrication of metal parts: a review. Front Mech Eng 10:111–125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11465-015-0341-2
Wang L, Xue J, Wang Q (2019) Correlation between arc mode, microstructure, and mechanical properties during wire arc additive manufacturing of 316L stainless steel. Mater Sci Eng A 751:183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.02.078
Kirkpatrick CW, Benjamin D (1980) Properties and selection, stainless steels, tool materials, and special purpose metals. Am Soc Met 9
Rodríguez NK, Vázquez L, Huarte I, Arruti E, Tabernero I, Álvarez P (2018) Wire and arc additive manufacturing: a comparison between CMT and TopTIG processes applied to stainless steel. Weld World 62:1083–1096 https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:139627519
ASTMA473-15 (2015) Standard specification for stainless steel forgings. ASTM Int: 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1520/A0473-13.2
Funding
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 2015693. The authors of this paper appreciate the continuous support provided by the Center for Manufacturing Research (CMR) and the Department of Manufacturing and Engineering Technology at Tennessee Technological University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Sainand Jadhav: Writing – original draft, Validation, Methodology, Investigation. Gwang Ho Jeong: Writing – review & editing, Computational Modeling, Conceptualization. Mahdi Sadeqi Bajestani: Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Formal analysis. Saiful Islam: Writing – review & editing, Investigation. Ho-Jin Lee: Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. Young Tae Cho: Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. Duck Bong Kim: Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest/competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Jadhav, S., Jeong, G.H., Bajestani, M.S. et al. Investigation of surface roughness, microstructure, and mechanical properties of overhead structures fabricated by wire + arc additive manufacturing. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 131, 5001–5021 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-13330-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-13330-3