Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Characterization of an austenitic stainless steel preform deposited by wire arc additive manufacturing

  • Application
  • Published:
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) is a fabrication process based on the addition of material by layers and has shown several advantages against other manufacturing processes, such as low cost and possibility of manufacturing parts with complex geometries. However, the additive manufacturing can change the properties of the workpiece due to the strategy of multilayer deposition, which can cause changes in the microstructure of the deposited material. In this sense, this work aimed to evaluate the chemical composition, microstructure, and mechanical and electrochemical behavior of the 316L stainless steel manufactured by wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), comparing it with a sample of the same alloy in the annealed condition, trying to understand how the different layers interfere in the final behavior of the material. The results indicate that the microstructure of the deposited material is different with the presence of ferrite in an austenitic matrix. Two regions whose microstructure had different morphologies were also identified in the WAAM alloy. In the region close to the fusion line between the deposited layers, the austenite grains are smaller, about 5 μm wide, against 10 μm of the grains in the area most to the center of the layers. This microstructural change caused an irregular microhardness profile, with an average of 276 HV, higher than the 190 HV of conventional material. It was also observed that the WAAM process caused a decrease in the yield strength (YS) (23%) and elongation (78%) of the alloy and a slight increase in the value of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) (9%); however, it still meets the minimum requirements for most industrial applications required for the material studied (min. UTS 485 MPa, min. YS 170 MPa, and min. elongation 35 MPa). Moreover, the electrochemical results in simulated seawater solution indicate that the corrosion potential of the deposited sample is like that of the conventional specimen (about 0.24 V), with the potential passivating of the first to be superior to that of the second, respectively, 0.640 V and 0.560 V.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

Not applicable.

References

  1. Sugavaneswaran M, Jebaraj AV, Kumar MDB, Lokesh K, Rajan AJ (2018) Enhancement of surface characteristics of direct metal laser sintered stainless steel 316L by shot peening. Surfaces and Interfaces 12:31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2018.04.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Sun L, Jiang F, Huang R, Yuan D, Guo C (2020) Anisotropic mechanical properties and deformation behavior of low-carbon high-strength steel component fabricated by wire and arc additive manufacturing. Mater Sci Eng, A 787:139514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.139514

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Kovalenko O (2019) Evaluation of arc stability and preform geometry aspects in additive manufacture using the MIG/MAG CMT process with a focus on Ti-6Al-4V alloy. 244p. Ph.D. Thesis. Federal University of Uberlandia, MG, Brazil. https://doi.org/10.14393/ufu.te.2019.629

  4. Debroy T, Wei HL, Zubacyk JS, Mukherjee T, Elmer JW, Milewski JO, Beese AM, Wilson-Heid A, De A, Zhang W (2018) Additive manufacturing of metallic components – process, structure and properties. Prog Mater Sci 92:112–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2017.10.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Oliveira JM (2019) Characterization of 316L stainless steel part made by the DMLS process. Course Completion Work (Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering) - Federal Technology University, PR, Brazil

  6. Ron T, Levy GK, Dolev O, Leon A, Shirizly A, Aghion E (2019) Environmental behavior of low carbon steel produced by a wire arc additive manufacturing process, Metals (Basel) 9(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/met9080888

  7. Ozsoy A, Tureyen EB, Baskan M, Yasa E (2021) Microstructure and mechanical properties of hybrid additive manufactured dissimilar 17–4 PH and 316L stainless steels. Mater Today Commun 28:102561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2021.102561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Singh SR, Khanna P (2020) Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM): a new process to shape engineering materials. Materials Today: Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.08.030

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Rodrigues TA, Duarte V, Avila JA, Santos TG, Miranda RM, Oliveira JP (2019) Wire and arc additive manufacturing of HSLA steel: effect of thermal cycles on microstructure and mechanical properties. Addit Manuf 27:440–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.03.029

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Han L, Lin G, Wang Z, Zhang H, Li F, You L (2010) Study on corrosion resistance of 316l stainless steel welded joint. Rare Metal Mater Eng 39(3):393–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1875-5372(10)60086-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Wu W, Xue J, Wang L, Zhang Z, Hu Y, Dong C (2019) Forming process, microstructure, and mechanical properties of thin-walled 316L stainless steel using speed-cold-welding additive manufacturing, Metals (Basel), vol. 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/met9010109

  12. Balla VK, Dey S, Muthuchamy AA, Janaki Ram GD, Das M, Bandyopadhyay A (2018) Laser surface modification of 316L stainless steel. J Biomed Mater Res - Part B Appl Biomater 106(2):569–577. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.b.33872

  13. Rafieazad M, Ghaffari M, Vahedi Nemani A, Nasiri A (2019) Microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of a low-carbon low-alloy steel produced by wire arc additive manufacturing. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 105 (5–6):2121–2134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04393-8

  14. Sander G, Babu AP, Gao X, Jiang D, Birbilis N (2021) On the effect of build orientation and residual stress on the corrosion of 316L stainless steel prepared by selective laser melting. Corros Sci 179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2020.109149

  15. Zhang X, Shou Q, Wang K, Peng Y, Ding J, Kong J, Williams S (2019) Study on microstructure and tensile properties of high nitrogen Cr-Mn steel processed by CMT wire and arc additive manufacturing. Mater Des 166:107611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2019.107611

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. AWS, American Welding Society, Welding Handbook: Metals and Their Weldability, vol. 4. 1997

  17. AWS, American Welding Society, Welding Handbook - welding science and tecnhology, vol. 1. 2001

  18. Moteshakker A, Danaee I (2016) Microstructure and corrosion resistance of dissimilar weld-joints between duplex stainless steel 2205 and austenitic stainless steel 316L. J Mater Sci Technol 32(3):282–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2015.11.021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Ramkumar T, Selvakumar M, Narayanasamy P, Begam AA, Mathavan P, Raj AA (2017) Studies on the structural property, mechanical relationships and corrosion behaviour of Inconel 718 and SS 316L dissimilar joints by TIG welding without using activated flux. J Manuf Process 30:290–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2017.09.028

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Wen DX, Long P, Li JJ, Huang L, Zheng ZZ (2019) Effects of linear heat input on microstructure and corrosion behavior of an austenitic stainless steel processed by wire arc additive manufacturing. Vacuum 173: 109131, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacuum.2019.109131

  21. Chen X, Li J, Cheng X, Wang H, Huang Z (2017) Effect of heat treatment on microstructure, mechanical and corrosion properties of austenitic stainless steel 316L using arc additive manufacturing. Mater Sci Eng A 715:307–314, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.10.002

  22. Chakkravarthy V, Jerome S (2020) Printability of multiwalled SS 316L by wire arc additive manufacturing route with tunable texture. Mater Lett 260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.126981

  23. Wang L, Xue J, Wang Q (2019) Correlation between arc mode, microstructure, and mechanical properties during wire arc additive manufacturing of 316L stainless steel. Mater Sci Eng, A 751:183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.02.078

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Belotti LP, Dommelen JAWV, Geers MGD, Goulas C, Ya W, Hoefnagels JPM (2021) Microstructural characterisation of thick-walled wire arc additively manufactured stainless steel. J Mater Process Technol 299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2021.117373

  25. Alberti EA, Silva LJ, Oliveira ASCM (2014) Additive Manufacturing: the role of welding in this window of opportunity. Soldagem & Inspeção 19(2):190–198. https://doi.org/10.1590/0104-9224/si1902.11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Bilmes PD, Llorente CL, Méndez CM, Gervasi CA (2009) Microstructure, heat treatment and pitting corrosion of 13CrNiMo plate and weld metals. Corros Sci 51(4):876–881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2009.01.018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Sun C, Wang Y, Mcmurtrey MD, Jerred ND, Liou F, Li J (2020) Additive manufacturing for energy : a review. Appl Energy 282(October):2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116041

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. ASME, American Society Of Metal Mechanical Engineers, ASME B36.10M - welded and seamless wrought steel pipe, 2004.

  29. Wang X, Wang A, Li Y (2019) A sequential path-planning methodology for wire and arc additive manufacturing based on a water-pouring rule. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 103(9–12):3813–3830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-03706-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Örnek C (2018) Additive manufacturing – a general corrosion perspective. Corros Eng Sci Technol 53:531–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478422X.2018.1511327

  31. da Silva LJ (2019) Near-immersion active cooling for wire + arc additive manufacturing: from concept to application near-immersion active cooling for wire + arc additive, 140p. Ph.D Thesis. Federal University of Uberlandia, MG, Brazil

  32. ASTM International, ASTM E8/E8M-21 Standard test methods for tension testing of metallic materials. (2021) 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1520/E0008

  33. ASTM International, ASTM A 312/A 312M- 21 standard specification for seamless, welded, and heavily cold worked austenitic stainless steel pipes, (2021) 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1520/A0312

  34. ASTM International, ASTM D1141 0 98 standard practice for the preparation of substitute ocean water 1. (1998) 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1520/D1141-98R13.2

  35. E. Folkhard, Welding metallutgy of stainless steels, 1st ed. 1988

  36. Mesquita TJ, Chauveau E, Mantel M, Kinsman N, Nogueira RP (2013) Influence of Mo alloying on pitting corrosion of stainless steels used as concrete reinforcement, Metallurgy and materials - inox 2010, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais - Brasil, 66(2):173–178

  37. Costa RS. Study of corrosion of AISI 304 in hydrated alcohol fuel (2012) 120p. Ph.D Thesis. Federal University of Campinas, SP, Brazil

  38. Botton T (2008) Comparative study of corrosion resistance in acid medium and in containing chloride of stainless steels UNS S44400, UNS S31603 obtained by hot rolling, 160p. Dissertation. University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil

  39. Nunes PG (2016) Electrochemical evaluation of stainless steel 304L after various welding processes. Dissertation, Federal University of Grande Dourado, MG, Brazil

  40. Padilha AF, Rios PR (2002) Decomposition of austenite in austenitic stainless steels. ISIJ Int 42(4):325–337. https://doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.42.325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Vilchez F, Pineda F, Walczak M, Ramos-Grez J (2020) The effect of laser surface melting of stainless steel grade AISI 316L welded joint on its corrosion performance in molten Solar Salt. Sol Energy Mater Solar Cell 213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110576

  42. Yang K, Wang Q, Qu Y, Jiang Y, Bao Y (2020) Microstructure and corrosion resistance of arc additive manufactured 316L stainless steel. J Wuhan Univ Technol Mater Sci Edition 35(5):930–936. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11595-020-2339-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Rhouma AB, Amadou T, Sidhom H, Braham C (2017) Correlation between microstructure and intergranular corrosion behavior of low delta-ferrite content AISI 316L aged in the range 550 e 700 C. J Alloy Compd 708:871–886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.02.273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. DeLong WT (1975) Ferrite in austenitic stainless steel. Weld Metal – 2, Indian Weld J 7(3):75–83

  45. Lippold JC, Kotecki DJ (2005) Welding metallurgy and weldability of stainless steels

  46. Guilherme LH (2016) Influence of the sigma phase on corrosion in microregions of joints welded by MIG processes of stainless steel AISI 316L 197p. Thesis, University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil

  47. Rajasekhar K, Harendranath CS, Raman R, Kulkarni SD (1997) Microstructural evolution during solidification of austenitic stainless steel weld metals: a color metallographic and electron microprobe analysis study. Mater Charact 38(2):53–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1044-5803(97)80024-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Somani CA, Lalwani DI (2019) Experimental study of some mechanical and metallurgical properties of TIG-MIG hybrid welded austenitic stainless steel plates. Mater Today: Proceed 26:644–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.12.253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Suutala N, Takalo T, Moisio T (1980) Ferritic-austenitic solidification mode in austenitic stainless steel welds l:717–725

  50. Wang C, Liu TG, Zhu P, Lu YH, Shoji T (2020) Study on microstructure and tensile properties of 316L stainless steel fabricated by CMT wire and arc additive manufacturing. Mater Sci Eng A 796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.140006

  51. Zhong Y, Zheng Z, Li J, Wang C (2021) Fabrication of 316L nuclear nozzles on the main pipeline with large curvature by CMT wire arc additive manufacturing and self-developed slicing algorithm. Mater Sci Eng 820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.141539

  52. P. R. S. Soares, Study of corrosion in different types of steel (2012) 78p. Dissertation, Instituto superior do porto, Portugal.

  53. Krakhmalev P, Fredriksson G, Svensson K, Yadroistev I, Yadroitsava I, Thuvander M, Peyng R (2018) Microstructure, Solidification texture, and thermal stability of 316L stainless steel manufactured by laser powder bed fusion pavel. Metals (Basel), 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8080643

  54. Pessanha EC (2011) Quantification of delta ferrite and evaluation of the microstructure/properties ratio of an austenitic stainless steel 347 welded 108p. Dissertation, State university of northern rio de janeiro Darcy Ribeiro, RJ, Brazil.

  55. Artaza T, Alberdi A, Murua M, Gorrotxategi J, Frías J, Puertas G, Melchor MA, Mugica D, Suárez A (2017) Design and integration of WAAM technology and in situ monitoring system in a gantry machine. Procedia Manufacturing 13:778–785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2017.09.184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Duarte VR, Rodrigues TA, Schell N, Miranda RM, Oliveira JP, Santos TG (2020) Hot forging wire and arc additive manufacturing (HF-WAAM). Addit Manuf 35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101193

  57. Zhong Y, Liu L, Wikman S, Cui D, Shen Z (2016) Intragranular cellular segregation network structure strengthening 316L stainless steel prepared by selective laser melting. J Nucl Mater 470:170–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2015.12.034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Zae S, Podgornik B, Mario Š, Tchernychova E (2020) Materials Characterization Quantitative multiscale correlative microstructure analysis of additive manufacturing of stainless steel 316L processed by selective laser melting. Mater Charact 160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2019.110074

  59. Kale AB, Kim BK, Kim DI, Castle EG, Reece M, Choi SH (2020) An investigation of the corrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel fabricated by SLM and SPS techniques. Mater Charact 163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2020.110204

  60. Ron T, Dolev O, Leon A, Shirizly A, Aghion E (2021) Effect of phase transformation on stress corrosion behavior of additively manufactured austenitic stainless steel produced by directed energy deposition. Materials 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14010055

  61. Ettefagh AH, Guo S (2018) Electrochemical behavior of AISI316L stainless steel parts produced by laser-based powder bed fusion process and the effect of post annealing process. Addit Manuf 22:153–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.05.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Rebak RB, Kon NE, Cotner JO, Crook P (1999) Passivity and localized corrosion. Electrochem Soc Proceed 473:27–99

    Google Scholar 

  63. Hayes J, Gray J, Szmodis A, Orme C (2006) Influence of chromium and molybdenum on the corrosion of nickel-based alloys. Corrosion 62:491–500. https://doi.org/10.5006/1.3279907

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Covert RA, Tuthill AH (2000) Stainless steels: an introduction to their metallurgy and corrosion resistance, Dairy, food and environmental sanitation, 20:506–517

  65. Xin SS, Li MC (2014) Electrochemical corrosion characteristics of type 316L stainless steel in hot concentrated seawater. Corros Sci 81:96–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2013.12.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the graduate program of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (FEMEC) of the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU) and to the team of technicians and engineers from the Laprosolda welding laboratory who carried out the construction and machining of the specimens and assisted in the execution of the tests here described.

Funding

This research was funded by the Petróleo Brasil S. A. (Petrobras).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil

    Lídia B. O. Souza, Maria R. N. Santos, Regina P. Garcia, Diandro B. Fernandes & Louriel O. Vilarinho

Authors
  1. Lídia B. O. Souza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Maria R. N. Santos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Regina P. Garcia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Diandro B. Fernandes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Louriel O. Vilarinho
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Methodology, L.S., M.S., and D. F.; resources, L. V.; writing of original draft preparation, L.B.; supervision, R. G. and L. V.; writing, review, and editing, L. B., M. S., R. G., and L. V.; project administration, D.F. and L. V.; funding acquisition, D.F. and L. V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lídia B. O. Souza.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Souza, L.B.O., Santos, M.R.N., Garcia, R.P. et al. Characterization of an austenitic stainless steel preform deposited by wire arc additive manufacturing. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 123, 3673–3686 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10382-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10382-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation