1 Introduction

The baby schema (Kindchenschema) theory proposed by ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1943) suggests that certain physical features seen in infants such as a large head, round face, and big eyes elicit nurturing and caregiving feelings in adults. This theory has been supported by many studies (e.g., Borgi et al. 2014; Doebel et al. 2022; Kringelbach et al. 2016; Nittono and Ihara 2017), which have found that adults perceive infants with baby-like features as more attractive and cute, increasing the motivation for caregiving and care. Recent research (e.g., Aragon et al. 2015; Dale et al. 2017; Nittono 2016; Lieber-Milo 2022; Nenkov and Scott 2014; Schaller 2018; Sherman and Haidt 2011) has shown that the sight of cute things also elicits a broad range of positive emotions and responses, ranging from playfulness and cute aggression to impulses to communicate and socialize with the cute entity.

While cuteness was initially investigated in human and animal infants, recent studies have shown that cuteness can also extend to inanimate objects such as designed products, virtual designs, and even robots that feature a baby schema design (Dale et al. 2017; Lieber-Milo 2022; Goan et al. 2006; Nenkov and Scott 2014; Nishiwaki et al. 2017; Miesler et al. 2011; Ohkura 2019). The area of weak robots with cute designs has garnered research interest in the field of human–robot interaction (Goan et al. 2006; Nishiwaki et al. 2017). The use of a cute design in robots, featuring large, expressive eyes, can make them more appealing to people (Nishiwaki et al. 2017). Similarly, Goan et al. (2006) demonstrated that a robot's cute design, including a playful use of building blocks, helped make it approachable and friendly to children. As such, the use of weak robots with cute designs can facilitate positive interactions between robots and humans in public spaces by making them approachable, friendly, and non-threatening.

In recent years, the cute esthetic has made a significant impact on online communication and has been found to be a useful tool for people to interact, express various emotions, and establish a sense of community and belonging. For instance, the use of cute designs, such as the Japanese "picture characters" known as emojis, allows for a more lighthearted and playful form of communication that can help foster positive relationships and connections online (Coyle and Carmichael 2019; Gn 2018).

The trend toward digital communication and socialization has accelerated in the first two decades of the twenty-first century, particularly due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With this shift toward the digital world, communication and learning experiences have become more approachable and user-friendly. For instance, online conversation platforms such as Zoom (zoom.us) and Second Life (secondlife.com) allow users, at a low cost and with high safety, to experience and interact with others while being in their own secured place (Amichai-Hamburger 2005; Amichai-Hamburger and McKenna 2006). In these platforms, users are presented by an avatar, which is virtual representor of the user and is used as a means of interacting with that environment (Bainbridge 2007; Koda et al. 2009). They can refer to highly realistic 3D avatars or 2D self-images of the user itself found on social network sites like Facebook (Facebook.com) (Bailenson et al. 2006).

Avatars can write, speak, walk, and even fly in the virtual world (Shonfeld and Kritz 2013; Van Der Land et al. 2015) and are now used in therapy (Alderson-Day and Jones 2018; Ward et al. 2020) and teaching (Liaw et al. 2021; Shonfeld and Kritz 2013), with their use found to be increasingly helpful. Yee and Bailenson (2007) found that people who inhabit avatars can be influenced by their avatar's characteristics, both during and after the virtual experience. Drawing from self-perception theory (Bem 1972), they argued that individuals controlling an avatar are more likely to assess its appearance from a third-person perspective. Moreover, Mulak's (2023) thesis demonstrated that virtual contact can foster more favorable attitudes toward real-world out-groups, suggesting that virtual contact holds promise as a tool for promoting intergroup harmony and enhancing attitudes toward marginalized groups.

Avatar facial design is a critical element in creating believable and engaging virtual characters, and research has explored the factors that influence avatar facial expressions. Studies have demonstrated that certain facial expressions, like smiling, can communicate positive emotions, such as happiness and relief (Becker-Asano and Wachsmuth 2010; Oh et al. 2016). In a recent study, Lv et al. (2021) showed that cute-designed avatars, which feature baby schema characteristics like a big head and large eyes, can elicit positive responses and exhibit a higher tolerance for technology service failure. However, preferences for avatar designs, including cute ones, may differ across cultures. Therefore, some cultures may favor avatars with baby schema cute characteristics, while others may prefer more realistic or mature designs. To explore these differences, we conducted a study comparing two distinct cultural groups, Israel and Japan, as previously done by Nittono et al. (2021). Our aim in the study was to investigate cross-cultural differences in how participants from these two countries rate cuteness among diverse baby schema cute ethnicity avatar designs. Our research builds on Nittono et al.'s 2021 study, which focused solely on differences in attitudes toward cuteness and the concept of cuteness among Japanese and Israeli individuals. By expanding on this research, we hope to gain a better understanding of how cultural differences may influence perceptions of avatar design and cuteness.

Two hypotheses were formulated for this study:

H1

Both national groups, Israel and Japan, will exhibit a positive attitude toward baby schema cute-designed avatars as compared to neutral avatar designs.

H2

Differences in approaches will appear between the national groups in terms of how they rate “cute” in each of the baby schema avatar visual designs, namely Caucasian, Asian, and Black.

Drawing on prior research indicating that cuteness evokes strong affiliative emotional reactions, we posited that both Israeli and Japanese respondents would rate the cute avatar designs as more cute, likable, pleasant, and approachable than the neutral designs (Hypothesis 1). Furthermore, it was anticipated that cultural discrepancies in attitudes toward the cute avatar designs would surface (Hypothesis 2), but no specific hypotheses were formulated regarding ethnicity-based differences in ratings of cuteness.

To this end, we conducted an online self-report survey with 485 participants from Israel and Japan. Each participant viewed two sets of images: (1) three baby schema cute avatar face designs with distinct visual characteristics (Caucasian, Asian, Black) featuring typical baby schema cues such as enlarged eyes and cheeks, a small nose, and a small mouth, and (2) neutral avatar face designs representing adult individuals with different visual characteristics (Caucasian, Asian, Black). The findings of this study confirmed that baby schema cutely designed avatars are perceived as more cute, likable, pleasant, approachable, and evoked more positive emotions than neutral, mature avatar designs. This suggests that incorporating cute design elements in online platforms such as virtual reality can improve the overall user experience. Moreover, this study highlights the importance of cultural differences in shaping people's perception of cuteness, which can be valuable information for companies seeking to create more culturally sensitive and inclusive products.

This research adds to the growing body of research on the psychological and social effects of cute esthetics, particularly in the context of online communication and interaction. It offers insight into how to use cute designs in online spaces to facilitate positive feelings that may contribute to a sense of community and belonging. In conclusion, this study provides significant insight into the influence of cultural differences on the perception of cuteness and the potential benefits of incorporating cute design elements in virtual platforms.

2 Methodology

2.1 Participants

Participants in this study were undergraduate university students aged between 18 and 30 years old (Mage = 21.98, SDage = 1.94), who were recruited from three universities (one Israeli and two Japanese). Following previous studies (e.g., Nittono and Ihara 2017; Nenkov and Scott 2014; Sherman et al. 2009), undergraduate university students were chosen as the core distribution group. The sample included 485 participants, with 305 Israeli students (52 male and 253 female) and 180 Japanese students (107 male and 73 female) completing the survey. Israeli students received one course credit for fully completing the survey, while Japanese students participated voluntarily without receiving any compensation.

2.2 Tools

A self-reported online questionnaire was used, delivered through the Qualtrics survey distribution system (https://www.qualtrics.com/). This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the first and second authors’ affiliation. Before participating in the survey, all Israeli and Japanese study participants signed an online consent form that informed them about the goals of the study, their voluntary participation, and a privacy policy stipulating that none of their personally identifiable information would be retained. Participants were granted the opportunity to quit at any time and at any stage of the survey.

The survey included questions about demographic information, as well as five questions related to attitudes toward baby schema cute and neutral less cute avatar images. Afterward, participants viewed six avatar images, with three featuring baby schema cute facial characteristics and three without. These avatars were created using the online platform "Ready Player Me" (readyplayer.me). The cute avatar images were edited to include typical physical cues of the baby schema, such as enlarged eyes and cheeks, a small nose, and a small mouth, while the neutral less cute avatars depicted realistic adult individuals (refer to Fig. 1. below). Participants were shown avatars that matched their biological gender.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Examples of female and male baby schema cute-designed avatars with different ethnicities and facial characteristics (Caucasian, Asian, and Black) on the left, compared to neutral avatars on the right. (with approval of readyplayer.me)

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This survey comprised two sections. In the first section, participants were shown each avatar image in a 25 cm × 30 cm frame and asked to rate their attitudes toward each image using a set of four bipolar adjective scales ("not cute"–"cute," "dislike"–"like," "unapproachable"–"approachable," and "unpleasant"–"pleasant") on a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from 1, "not at all," to 5, "very much"). They were also asked to rate the degree of positive feelings they experienced while viewing the VR character using a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from 1, "not at all," to 5, "extremely"). After each image, participants were asked to answer the same set of five questions for that specific image. This process was repeated for each avatar image presented in the survey.

The second section of the survey comprised nine questions that assessed participants' preferences for virtual avatars. However, for the purposes of this paper, we will focus solely on the results of the first part of the survey.

2.3 Data analyses

The collected data were analyzed using IBM SPSS, version 28. A significance level of 0.05 and 95% confidence intervals were set for all analyses. The data are publicly available at https://osf.io/bzx8s/?view_only=bfec1a87c46c4b6eba2cb48248d388ff.

3 Results

3.1 Attitudes toward baby schema and neutral-designed avatar images

To investigate Israeli and Japanese participants' attitudes toward cute baby schema and neutral-designed avatar images (Hypothesis 1), we conducted a repeated-measures ANOVA on each of the four adjective inquiries ("not cute–cute," "dislike–like," "unapproachable–approachable," "unpleasant–pleasant"), as well as the question "How positive did you feel while watching the virtual reality character" on a 5-Likert scale ("not at all-extremely"). The results supported Hypothesis 1, as they revealed significant differences in the ratings of the two groups of avatar images (baby schema cute avatar vs. less cute neutral avatar) among the two national groups. The baby schema cute manipulated avatars were rated higher and were perceived as more cute, likable, approachable, pleasant, and brought more positive feelings than the neutral mature-designed avatars.

However, we did not observe any significant differences between national and gender groups, indicating that baby schema cute avatars elicited more positive attitudes among respondents, regardless of their gender or nationality. In the following sections, we will provide a detailed analysis of each inquiry item related to participants' attitudes toward the avatar images.

3.2 Cute

The results of Mauchly's test indicated that the assumption of sphericity was not violated, χ2(2) = 2.1, p = 0.34; thus, sphericity assumed results were reported. The ANOVA test results showed a significant main effect within the avatar groups, F(2,962) = 6.2, p = 0.002, ηp2 = 0.013, indicating that the manipulated cute avatars felt cuter than the neutral avatars. We found no significant main effect for Attitude × Avatar × Country × Gender, F(2, 962) = 0.679, p = 0.50, ns, suggesting that both male and female participants from Japan and Israel had similar perceptions regarding the degree of cuteness of baby schema (Caucasian, Asian, and Black) avatars compared to neutral designs.

3.3 Likability

Mauchly's test results showed that the assumption of sphericity was not violated, χ2(2) = 0.40, p = 0.81, so sphericity assumed results were reported.

The ANOVA test results showed a significant main effect within the two avatar groups, F(2, 962) = 4.35, p = 0.01, ηp2 = 0.009, indicating that the manipulated cute-designed avatars were rated as more likable than the neutral-designed avatars. No significant main effect was found within Attitude × Avatar × Country × Gender, F(2, 962) = 0.835, p = 0.43, ns, suggesting that both Japanese and Israeli male and female respondents had similar views on the likability of the baby schema compared to neutral-designed avatars. In other words, both Israeli and Japanese male and female respondents found the baby schema cute manipulated designed avatars to be more likable than neutral ones.

3.4 Approachability

Mauchly's test results showed that the assumption of sphericity was not violated, χ2(2) = 0.28, p = 0.86, so sphericity assumed results were reported.

The ANOVA test results showed a significant main effect within the two avatar groups, F(2, 962) = 16.1, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.032, in which the manipulated cute-designed avatars were perceived as more approachable than the neutral-designed avatars. No significant main effect was found within Attitude × Avatar × Country × Gender, F(2, 962) = 0.669, p = 0.51, ns, suggesting that both Japanese and Israeli male and female respondents have a similar approach to how much they see the baby schema approachable compared to the neutral-designed avatars. In other words, both Israeli and Japanese male and female respondents perceived the baby schema cute manipulated designed avatars as more approachable than the neutral ones.

3.5 Pleasantness

The results of Mauchly's test showed that the assumption of sphericity was not violated, χ2(2) = 0.60, p = 0.73, and thus, sphericity was assumed.

The ANOVA test results showed a significant main effect within the two avatar groups, F(2, 962) = 8.23, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.017, indicating that the manipulated cute avatars were perceived as more pleasant than the neutral avatar. No significant main effect was found within Attitude × Avatar groups × Country × Gender, F(2, 962) = 0.226, p = 0.79, ns, suggesting that both Japanese and Israeli male and female respondents have a similar approach to how much they see the baby schema avatars as pleasant compared to the neutral-designed avatars. In other words, both Israeli and Japanese male and female respondents see the baby schema cute manipulated designed avatars as more pleasant than the neutral ones.

3.6 Positive feelings

The results of Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of sphericity was not violated, χ2(2) = 2.4, p = 0.29, and thus, sphericity was assumed.

The ANOVA test results showed a significant main effect within the two avatar groups, F(2, 962) = 7.3, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.015, indicating that the manipulated cute avatars elicited more positive feelings than the neutral-designed avatars. No significant main effect was found within Attitude × Avatar groups × Country × Gender, F(2, 962) = 0.112, p = 0.89, ns, suggesting that both Japanese and Israeli male and female respondents have a similar approach to how much they see the baby schema as pleasant compared to the neutral-designed avatars. In other words, both Israeli and Japanese male and female respondents see the baby schema cute manipulated designed avatars as eliciting more positive feelings compared to the neutral ones.

Overall, the results of the ANOVA tests indicate that both male and female participants from Japan and Israel had similar perceptions regarding the baby schema cute avatars compared to the neutral designs. Specifically, the baby schema cute-designed avatars were perceived as cuter, more likable, more approachable, more pleasant, and elicited more positive feelings than the neutral-designed avatars. Table 1 below provides the means and standard deviations (SD) for both cultural and gender groups.

Table 1 Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of Emotional Attitudes toward Baby Schema Cute and Neutral-Designed Group Avatar Images
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3.7 Attitudes toward baby schema cute avatar designs: a comparison between different avatar designs

To explore differences in perceived cuteness of baby schema avatar designs across different facial characteristics and ethnicities to determine if there are differences in attitudes between national groups, a repeated-measure ANOVA was conducted (Hypothesis 2). Mauchly's test showed no violation of sphericity, χ2(2) = 2.06, p = 0.35, so sphericity was assumed. The ANOVA results revealed a significant difference between the three types of baby schema cute avatars (Caucasian, Asian, and Black), F(2, 962) = 22.73, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.045, indicating that some avatars were rated as cuter than others. A post hoc Bonferroni test indicated that participants found the baby schema cute Caucasian avatar design (M = 3.28) to be cuter than the baby schema cute Asian and Black avatar designs (M = 3.13, 2.91, respectively), and that the Asian avatar design was rated as cuter than the Black avatar design.

Furthermore, significant main effects were found within the avatars, country, and gender, indicating that the effects of country, gender, and attitudes toward the avatar design differed across countries. The main effect of object gender was significant, F(2, 962) = 7.23, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.015. A post hoc Bonferroni test indicated that Japanese females (M = 3.26, SD = 0.074) responded more positively than Japanese males (M = 2.86, SD = 0.061) to the question "How do you feel about the VR character? Not cute/cute,” p < 0.001. However, no difference was found between Israeli males and females, p = 0.44, ns.

The main effect of object country was also significant, F(2, 962) = 13.72, p < 0.001, 13.72, ηp2 = 0.028. A post hoc Bonferroni test indicated that Japanese participants gave higher ratings to the baby schema cute Caucasian avatar (M = 3.40, SD = 0.063) than Israeli participants (M = 3.16, SD = 0.063). Conversely, Israeli participants rated the Asian and Black avatars (M = 3.23, 3.06, respectively) higher than Japanese participants did (M = 3.02, 2.76, respectively).

In contrast to the international comparison, which revealed that Israeli participants rated the Asian and Black avatars (M = 3.23, 3.06, respectively) higher than Japanese participants did (M = 3.02, 2.76, respectively), it is noteworthy that within the Japanese participant group, a slightly different pattern emerged. Specifically, Japanese participants provided the following ratings for the three avatars presented to them: Asian avatar (M = 3.02), Caucasian avatar (M = 3.40), and Black avatar (M = 2.76). This comparison within the Japanese participants indicate that, among Japanese participants, the Caucasian avatar received the highest rating, followed by the Asian and Black avatars, respectively.

The ANOVA simple main effects analysis revealed significant differences in the perceived cuteness ratings of the baby schema cute avatar designs between Japanese and Israeli participants. Within the Japanese participant group, the Caucasian avatar received the highest cuteness rating, while the Black avatar received lower ratings. In contrast, Israeli participants rated the Asian and Caucasian avatars higher than the Black avatar design. This suggests that the appreciation of baby schema cute avatar designs varies among individuals from different countries and cultural backgrounds, even though these designs consistently receive higher cuteness ratings compared to neutral mature avatar designs.

Figure 2 below presents a comparison of mean ratings for baby schema and neutral design avatars among Japanese and Israeli participants in response to the question "How do you feel about the virtual reality character? cute/not cute?".

Fig. 2
figure 2

Comparison of Baby Schema and Neutral Avatar Designs among Japanese and Israeli Participants' Responses to the Question "How do you feel about the virtual reality character? cute/not cute?

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To summarize, this study found that baby schema avatars were generally perceived as cuter, more likable, approachable, pleasant, and evoked more positive emotions than neutral mature avatars, among both Japanese and Israeli participants. However, cultural differences may play a role in how individuals perceive cuteness, as the results suggest that not all cute designs are equally appreciated across cultures. Specifically, Japanese participants rated the baby schema cute Caucasian avatar as cuter than the Asian and Black avatars, while Israeli respondents rated the Asian and Black avatars higher than Japanese participants did. These findings emphasize the importance of considering cultural differences in avatar design for virtual environments.

4 Discussion

The present study aimed to achieve two objectives. First, to conduct a comparative analysis of attitudes toward avatars with baby schema cute features and those with neutral (less cute) features using facial images. Second, to investigate and compare attitudes toward cute avatar designs (Caucasian, Asian, Black) among Israeli and Japanese participants. This study aimed to contribute to the existing research on avatar design, with a specific focus on cute virtual design.

This study showed that avatars featuring baby schema features received higher ratings and were perceived as more "cute," "likable," "approachable," "pleasant," and elicited more positive emotions than neutral mature avatar designs. Participants from both Israel and Japan assessed the cute avatars similarly, implying that utilizing cute avatar designs could encourage positive interactions in computer-mediated communication, particularly in societies that prize cuteness, like Japan.

In Japan, the concept of cuteness, known as kawaii in Japanese, holds significant cultural value and appreciation (Lieber-Milo and Nittono 2019a; Lieber-Milo 2022; Yomota 2006). This appreciation for cuteness can be observed across various forms of media, advertising, fashion, and consumer products in Japanese society (Buckley 2016; Dale 2020; Lieber-Milo and Nittono 2019a; Nittono 2016; Yomota 2006). For women in particular, kawaii culture has become an important means of self-expression and identity (Lieber-Milo 2022). The connection between young women and kawaii culture can be traced back to the 1970s with the emergence of a schoolgirl handwriting trend known as burikko ji or "fake-child writing," which featured round-shaped letters, English lettering, and cartoon pictures (Decatur 2012). Kawaii provides women with a space to challenge traditional expectations of femininity and gender roles and express their individuality and creativity, which are often limited by societal norms (Kinsella 1995; Lieber-Milo 2022). Additionally, kawaii is seen as a coping mechanism for the pressure and stress of daily life and work in Japan, contributing to its widespread acceptance and popularity among Japanese women (Lieber-Milo 2022). Although kawaii as a trend was initially criticized by society, it has now become a significant aspect of Japanese culture that is enjoyed by people of all ages (Nittono 2019; Lieber-Milo 2022). And thus, the use of cute imagery and designs is prevalent in a wide range of products, from office supplies to electronics, and it is not unusual to see adults, especially women, sporting cute clothing and decorating their homes and workplaces with cute items (Lieber-Milo 2017, 2022). Therefore, the higher appreciation of baby schema cute avatar designs among Japanese female respondents, as shown in the current study, can be explained by this cultural context.

While cuteness is highly prized in Japan, similar tendencies toward cuteness were observed in other cultures, such as Israel (Nittono et al. 2021). Since the 1980s there is a growing interest of Japanese popular culture in Israel (Goldstein-Gidoni 2005). This exposure has brought the interest of young Israelis, many of whom are now familiar with Japanese terms like “kawaii,” and have the opportunity to travel to Japan and learn about its culture (Lieber-Milo and Nittono 2019b). This high level of interest in Asian countries, particularly Japan, and the increased exposure to its culture may have played a role in explaining the higher rating of the baby schema Asian design compared to other designs among Israelis.

Additionally, cute designs are not exclusive to human infants and young animals, as virtual designs like avatars can also elicit a cuteness response in individuals. However, it is essential to note that not all cute designs evoke the same positive attitudes. Our study found that the ratings of each baby schema cute avatar's facial design (Caucasian, Asian, and Black) differed between the two nationalities, suggesting that cultural background may play a role in how individuals perceive cuteness in avatar design.

To comprehend why the Japanese participants rated the Caucasian avatar as cuter than the Asian and Black avatars in our study, we need to consider the historical and cultural factors that have shaped the Japanese perception of beauty. For centuries, lighter skin has been associated with nobility and social status in Japan, with fair skin being seen as a symbol of beauty (Wagatsuma 1967; Miller 2006). This preference for lighter skin has continued to the present day, with Japanese women using skin-whitening cosmetics and the beauty industry focusing on producing products that promise to lighten the skin (Ashikari 2005). These cultural factors may have influenced the participants' ratings of the avatars, with the Caucasian avatar being perceived as cuter due to its lighter skin tone. Nevertheless, it is important to note that this is just one possible factor, and other cultural and individual factors may have also played a role in the ratings.

In contrast to Japan, Israel is a country with a diverse population, and there is no widespread cultural preference for a specific skin color. Beauty standards in Israel are influenced by a mix of Western, Mediterranean, and Middle Eastern cultural traditions, and while there is a tanning products industry, the beauty ideal promoted is for tanned light or "white" skin, rather than black or "naturally" dark skin (Dahan-Kalev and Maor 2015). These factors may have contributed to the different ratings of the avatar designs between Israeli and Japanese participants in our study. Beyond skin color, other facial features such as hair color and eye shape may have influenced participants' attitudes. Notably, a study by Onuki et al. (2013) found that when designing non-human robots, Japanese participants preferred designs with rounded eyes over other options. In terms of hair style, many Japanese individuals, especially women, tend to prefer dark brown hair and often dye it (Kato et al. 2006; Matsubara et al. 2018; Miller 2006). This preference for specific facial features and hair color could explain why Japanese participants gave higher ratings to the Caucasian avatar.

The current study emphasizes the significant role of avatar facial design in eliciting positive emotions from users. Consistent with previous research on the positive emotions evoked by the sight of cute living and non-living creatures and images (e.g., Goan et al. 2006; Kringelbach et al. 2016; Lee et al. 2022; Nittono and Ihara 2017; Nishiwaki et al. 2017; Nenkov and Scott 2014; Ohkura 2019), our study highlights that virtual design avatars can also provoke a cuteness response from observers. Moreover, our research findings highlight the subjectivity of cuteness perception, which can vary both among cultures and individuals. While baby schema cuteness generally elicits positive emotions, the specific design features that people find cute may differ based on cultural norms, beauty standards, and preferences for skin color. Moreover, the degree to which people value cuteness can also vary across cultures and individuals.

To enhance user engagement and elicit positive attitudes toward products or media, it is essential to design avatars that can evoke positive emotional responses. To achieve this, designers need to consider the cultural background, beauty standards, and preferences of their target audience. Understanding the differences in attitudes toward cuteness across cultures and societies is crucial in designing avatars that resonate with the intended audience. By recognizing and addressing these nuances in design, designers can create more positive emotional experiences that lead to greater user engagement and positive attitudes toward the product or media.

5 Limitation

The present study has several limitations. Firstly, the sample was restricted to university students aged 18–30 years old, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to the wider population. It is unclear whether individuals from other age groups and social status groups would exhibit similar attitudes and responses to various types of avatar designs. Future studies should aim to recruit more diverse samples from various age and social status groups to obtain a more representative sample. Second, the compensation provided to the participants varied between the two countries, with Israeli participants receiving course credit while Japanese participants not receiving any compensation. This disparity in compensation may have influenced the motivation and engagement levels of the respondents from each country, potentially resulting in a higher number of Israeli survey respondents (n = 305, 62.9%). Future studies should aim to provide comparable compensation for participation to ensure equal motivation and engagement levels across different cultural backgrounds.

Third, in the current study, all participants were shown avatars that matched their biological gender. Our rationale for aligning avatar gender with the participants' biological gender was to investigate the potential impact of congruency between participant and avatar gender on the perception of cuteness. Future research may explore participants' reactions, attitudes, or behaviors to different avatars that either align with or differ from their own gender identities. Exploring this aspect further could contribute to a more profound understanding of the role of gender congruency in virtual environments and its implications for user experiences. Furthermore, this study used a limited number and types of images as stimuli due to the high number of questions presented to the participants. While this was necessary to avoid overwhelming the participants, it limits the generalizability of the findings to other avatar designs. Future research should include a wider range of avatar designs to test the robustness of the findings. Additionally, it should be noted that the researchers used a specific base design of the 3D avatar face, in which some faces were strongly deformed to enhance baby schema cuteness (such as enlarging the eyes, small nose, and round faces), while others were designed to appear more mature and less cute. Therefore, the strength of the cuteness effect may vary depending on the design of the avatar faces. Future studies should investigate the impact of different variations in avatar face designs, including 2D avatars, on the cuteness effect to gain a more comprehensive understanding of this tendency.

Finally, this study only examined attitudes and emotional responses to cute avatar designs in Israel and Japan. It remains unclear whether these tendencies can be generalized to other cultures and areas. Future research should aim to replicate the findings in other countries and cultures to provide a more comprehensive understanding of attitudes toward cute avatar designs across different populations.

Despite the limitations, this study sheds light on the impact of avatar design on computer-mediated communication and provides practical implications for creating virtual environments in various industries. By demonstrating the positive effects of using baby schema cute avatar designs in promoting positive interactions, this study provides valuable insights for designers and organizations seeking to enhance user engagement and satisfaction in virtual settings. Additionally, this study highlights the importance of considering cultural differences in avatar design, emphasizing the need for diverse and inclusive representation in virtual environments. Overall, this study underscores the significance of avatar design in shaping user experiences and perceptions in virtual settings and highlights the need for further research in this area.

6 Conclusion

In this study, we aimed to compare emotional attitudes toward baby schema cute and neutral avatar image designs and examine the influence of visual characteristics of the avatar on the cuteness perception of avatars. Our findings suggest that avatars with baby schema cute designs were perceived as cuter, more likable, approachable, and pleasant than those with neutral mature designs, highlighting the importance of avatar design in shaping user experiences and perceptions in virtual settings. However, the degree of cuteness varied across different designs and countries, indicating the subjective nature of cuteness, which can vary across cultures and individuals.

These results have significant implications for avatar design in virtual worlds and online communities. By incorporating cute and culturally appropriate facial designs, designers can create a positive first impression and foster positive emotional responses among users, leading to increased engagement and participation in online communities. Additionally, understanding cultural differences in cuteness perception can help create more inclusive and culturally appropriate avatars that resonate with their target audience, promoting more positive emotional experiences for users.

Future research could expand on our findings by exploring cultural differences in cuteness perception and its influence on user engagement. This could lead to the creation of more culturally appropriate avatars that better meet the needs and preferences of users, ultimately promoting more positive emotional experiences. As avatars and virtual worlds continue to grow and evolve with new technologies and platforms, it is becoming increasingly important for designers to carefully consider and fully understand the impact of avatar design on user engagement and emotional responses.