1 Introduction

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a cutting-edge technology (Chatterjee et al. 2022). Its applications can be found in many fields including computer science, banking, agriculture, and healthcare (Pham et al. 2020; Zhang et al. 2020). AI has two domains: Weak AI and Strong AI. Weak AI is specialized for specific tasks, while Strong AI aims to create machines with human-like general intelligence. Developed countries lead in these advancements with advanced technologies and ample resources (Tizhoosh and Pantanowitz 2018).

Nations have recognized the transformational potential of AI (Fatima et al. 2020). Therefore, more than 60 countries published their AI national strategies in the past 5 years following Canada which was the first to publish the strategy in 2017 (Vats et al. 2022; Zhang et al. 2021). The majority of countries (more than 70%) who launched their AI national strategies are developed countries (Holon IQ 2020).

The approach of AI national strategies differentiates between developed and developing countries. Developed countries have advanced economies and strong technological infrastructures, focusing on leveraging AI to maintain their competitive advantage and drive economic growth. They are at the forefront of both Weak and Strong AI. In the domain of Weak AI, they utilize specialized systems for practical applications in various industries such as healthcare, finance, and transportation, resulting in efficiency gains and economic advantages. In Strong AI endeavors, their significant research involves infrastructure, financial resources, and access to top talent propel innovation. These countries prioritize the development of ethical AI frameworks, invest in education and workforce development, and foster global collaborations to sustain their AI leadership. Their dedication to AI innovation places them at the vanguard of technology, shaping the future of AI-driven industries and applications.

Developing countries, on the other hand, are navigating the AI landscape with varying degrees of progress in Weak and Strong AI. In Weak AI applications, they often rely on cost-effective solutions, such as chatbots or data analytics, to address local challenges like healthcare access and agriculture optimization. However, resource limitations hinder their full adoption. The pursuit of Strong AI remains a challenge due to inadequate research infrastructure and funding constraints. Developing nations prioritize capacity building, fostering local talent, and seeking international collaborations to bridge the AI technology gap. While progress is gradual, their commitment to AI development is a crucial step toward unlocking future socio-economic benefits. The difference between developed and developing countries is expected since developing countries are consumers of technologies produced by developed countries (Monasterio Astobiza et al. 2022). Moreover, developing countries have low awareness of applications of AI across several fields (Kahn et al. 2018). This increases the gap of AI technology development between developed and developing countries (Kahn et al. 2018).

Several developed and developing countries in the MENA region are coping with AI and developing their AI national strategies. According to Google report, the potential economic impact of AI on the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is estimated to 320 billion USD dollars by 2030 (Economist Impact 2022). Currently, the following 7 countries out of 19 in MENA region launched their AI national strategies: United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Oman, Tunisia, and Jordan.

Following other countries in the MENA region, in 2021, the Ministry of Telecom and Information Technology in Palestine issued the need for an AI national strategy. Palestine has good infrastructure since 92% of Palestinian households have home Internet access and in 2022, the optical fiber network was established in Palestine. Therefore, this paper aims to identify AI national strategy pillars in Palestine which is a case of a developing country in the MENA region. To achieve this, the paper assessed the AI status across education, entrepreneurship, government, and research and development sectors in Palestine (the case of a developing country). In addition, it examined the legal framework and whether it is coping with trending technologies.

The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 provides a brief review of AI national strategies in developed and developing countries. The AI readiness assessment in Palestine as a case of a developing country is explained in Sect. 3. Section 4 presents the results obtained which are essential to identify the Palestinian AI national strategy’s main pillars. Finally, conclusions and future work are depicted in Sect. 5.

2 Literature review

In recent years, many countries have developed national strategies for AI, which provide a framework for the development and implementation of the technology. These strategies have focused on different pillars, depending on the specific country and its needs (Jorge et al. 2022; Economist Impact 2022; Kazim et al. 2021; Escobar and Sciortino 2022).

The use of AI benefits both developed and developing countries (Makridakis 2017). However, the ways in which these countries approach AI can be quite different. In general, developed countries have the resources and infrastructure necessary to support the development and implementation of advanced AI technologies (Mhlanga 2021). As a result, AI national strategies in these countries focus on using technology to improve efficiencies and productivity in various industries, such as healthcare, finance, and transportation (Ahmed et al. 2022; Wahl et al. 2018; Kshetri 2021; Abduljabbar et al. 2019). In contrast, developing countries have more limited resources and infrastructure, so their AI national strategies tend to focus on using technology to address specific needs in their communities. For example, a developing country prioritizes using AI to improve access to education or healthcare or to promote economic growth (Ahmed et al. 2022; Guo and Li 2018). Additionally, developing countries are focused on using AI to help bridge the gap between themselves and developed countries, in terms of technological advancement and economic growth (Goralski and Tan 2020). Overall, the AI national strategies of developed and developing countries tend to differ in terms of their focus and priorities.

This section provides a comprehensive review of existing AI national strategies, and how they differentiate in developed and developing countries.

2.1 AI national strategies in developed countries

Many developed countries have recognized the potential of AI to drive economic growth, improve public services, and advance scientific research. As a result, they have developed national strategies to support the development and deployment of AI technologies in a way that is responsible, ethical, and beneficial to society (Zhang et al. 2021).

The United States, released a national AI strategy called the “American AI Initiative” in 2019, which focused on promoting public–private partnerships, investing in AI research and development, and increasing access to data and computing resources for AI researchers (Johnson 2019). The initiative is based on the following five key pillars:

  • Investing in research and development: The United States is investing in AI-focused research institutions and incubators, and is providing support for businesses that are developing AI-related products and services.

  • Fostering public–private partnerships: The United States is promoting collaboration between government agencies, academia, and the private sector to advance AI research and development.

  • Promoting the responsible and ethical use of AI: The United States is implementing policies and initiatives to promote the responsible and ethical use of AI by engaging with stakeholders and addressing potential negative impacts of AI.

  • Supporting the growth of the AI industry: The United States is providing support for businesses that are developing AI-related products and services, and is implementing policies to support the growth of the AI industry.

  • Building the technological infrastructure and capabilities needed to enable the use of AI: The United States is investing in the development of the technological infrastructure and capabilities needed to enable the use of AI, by implementing policies to support the growth of the AI industry.

Canada has implemented the Pan-Canadian Artificial Intelligence Strategy, which is focused on supporting the growth of the AI industry, and on using AI to address challenges in areas such as healthcare and transportation (Escobar and Sciortino 2022). The strategy is based on the following four key pillars:

  • Investing in research and development: Canada is investing in AI-focused research institutions and incubators, and is providing support for businesses that are developing AI-related products and services.

  • Supporting the growth of the AI industry: Canada is providing support for businesses that are developing AI-related products and services, and is implementing policies to support the growth of the AI industry.

  • Using AI to address challenges: Canada is using AI to address challenges in areas such as healthcare and transportation, by implementing AI-powered solutions and initiatives.

  • Building the technological infrastructure and capabilities needed to enable the use of AI: Canada is investing in the development of the technological infrastructure and capabilities needed to enable the use of AI, by implementing policies to support the growth of the AI industry.

The United Kingdom also launched its strategy “AI Sector Deal” in 2018. This strategy includes a number of initiatives to support the growth of the country’s AI industry, including investments in AI research and development, the establishment of an AI skills institute, and the creation of an AI advisory council to help develop ethical guidelines for the use of AI (Bourne 2019). The strategy is based on key pillars similar to the USA.

In Europe, the European Union has also been working on a comprehensive AI strategy “EU AI Strategy”, which includes initiatives to support the development and deployment of AI technologies, as well as measures to ensure the responsible and ethical use of AI (European Commission 2020; Cohen et al. 2020). The EU AI Strategy is based on three key pillars:

  • Investing in research and development: The European Union is investing in AI-focused research institutions and incubators, and is providing support for businesses that are developing AI-related products and services.

  • Supporting the growth of the AI industry: The European Union is providing support for businesses that are developing AI-related products and services, and is implementing policies to support the growth of the AI industry.

  • Addressing ethical and societal concerns related to AI: The European Union is implementing policies and initiatives to address ethical and societal concerns related to AI, by engaging with stakeholders and promoting the responsible and ethical use of AI.

Other developed countries, such as Japan and South Korea, are also taking steps to develop national AI strategies. Japan has developed the Society 5.0 initiative, which aims to use AI and other emerging technologies to drive economic growth and social development (Fukuyama 2018; Shiroishi et al. 2018). The Society 5.0 initiative is based on four key pillars similar to Canada.

South Korea has adopted the AI National Development Plan, which is focused on investing in AI research and development, supporting the growth of the AI industry, and promoting the use of AI in various sectors (Chung 2020). The AI National Development Plan is based on three key pillars:

  • Investing in research and development: South Korea is investing in AI-focused research institutions and incubators, and is providing support for businesses that are developing AI-related products and services.

  • Supporting the growth of the AI industry: South Korea is providing support for businesses that are developing AI-related products and services, and is implementing policies to support the growth of the AI industry.

  • Promoting the use of AI in various sectors: South Korea is promoting the use of AI in various sectors, by implementing AI-powered solutions and initiatives in areas such as healthcare and transportation.

AI is also increasingly adopted by a number of developing countries in MENA region, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, and Qatar (Radu 2021; Malkawi 2022; Ghazwani et al. 2022; Alelyani et al. 2021). These countries have made significant investments in the development and use of AI technologies, and have implemented a number of initiatives and policies to support the growth of the AI industry (Sharfi 2021). For example, the UAE has established partnerships with leading tech companies to develop AI-powered healthcare solutions, and has launched initiatives to support the use of AI in education (Dumas et al. 2022; Bhattacharya and Nakhare 2019). Saudi Arabia has also invested heavily in research and development in AI, and has implemented policies to support the growth of the AI industry (Bugami 2022).

2.2 AI national strategies in developing countries

Many developing countries are still in the early stages of developing and implementing AI national strategies, as the technology is relatively new and can be expensive to implement (Radu 2021; Sharma et al. 2022). In addition, developing countries face challenges such as limited access to technology and funding, as well as a shortage of skilled workers with expertise in AI (De-Arteaga et al. 2018; Sharma et al. 2022). As a result, it is likely that the adoption of AI in developing countries will be slower compared to more developed countries.

Regardless of the limited resources and slow adoption of AI, several developing countries have launched AI national strategies following developed countries for several reasons. First and foremost, AI has the potential to benefit developing countries, by providing innovative solutions to challenges and needs in these countries (Strusani and Houngbonon 2019). For example, AI-powered healthcare systems can help to improve the availability of medical services in underserved communities (Ilhan et al. 2021).

Additionally, developing countries aim to participate in the global AI ecosystem. As AI becomes more prevalent, there is an increasing demand for skilled AI professionals, and developing countries can play a significant role in meeting this demand (Su et al. 2021; Squicciarini and Nachtigall 2021; Millington 2017). By investing in AI education and training, developing countries can help to develop a skilled workforce that is capable of participating in the global AI industry (Millington 2017; Sharma et al. 2022).

India, Brazil, Mexico, and South Africa developed their AI national strategies which are focused on using AI to address challenges in areas such as healthcare, agriculture, and education, and on building the technological infrastructure and capabilities needed to enable the use of AI (Chatterjee 2020; Malerbi and Melo 2022; Criado et al. 2021; Arakpogun et al. 2021). China has implemented the “Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development” Plan, which is focused on investing in AI research and development, supporting the growth of the AI industry, and promoting the use of AI in various sectors.

Developing countries in the MENA region also launched their AI national strategies or recognized the importance of AI and are currently in the process. Three out of thirteen developing countries in the MENA region (Egypt, Tunisia, and Jordan) launched their AI national strategies (Ministry of Communications and Innovation Technology (Egypt) 2021). Their strategies focused on the following pillars:

  • Building human capacities, expertise, and spreading awareness on AI (develop the capabilities of senior government and private sector leaders in the field of AI).

  • Importance of participating in AI international and regional conferences and seminars.

  • Promoting the use and adoption of artificial intelligence and its applications in the public sector and building the necessary partnerships with the private sector

  • Integrating AI in entrepreneurship and business.

  • Upskilling employees working in the technology field.

  • Conducting training for government agencies.

  • Develop policies related to ethical guidelines, legislative reforms, and standardization.

  • Develop AI educational courses that could be taught at schools and universities.

As mentioned earlier developing countries recognize the potential benefits of AI, and are taking steps to incorporate it into their economies and societies. This is similar to the current situation in Palestine, as in 2021, the Ministry of Telecom and Information Technology issued the need for an AI national strategy. To develop the strategy, the AI readiness assessment is needed to examine the status of AI in the educational sector (schools, universities), entrepreneurship sector, research and development, governmental sector, and privacy and data Protection. In Palestine, no data is available. Therefore, Sect. 3 illustrates the research methodology which explains in detail the experiment setup needed to identify the main pillars of the Palestinian AI national strategy.

3 Methodology

This paper aims to present AI readiness assessment in Palestine to help develop and identify the main pillars in the AI national strategy. This section describes the experiment questions, the experimental setup, and the participants.

3.1 Research questions

This experiment aims to answer the following main questions:

  1. 1.

    Do Palestinians have awareness of artificial intelligence?

  2. 2.

    What is the status of AI across education, entrepreneurship, government, research and development, and sectors in Palestine?

  3. 3.

    What are the main pillars of the Palestinian AI national strategy?

3.2 Experimental setup

To address the research questions mentioned above, the AI readiness assessment was examined across the educational sector (schools, universities), entrepreneurship sector, research and development sector, governmental sector, and privacy and data protection in Palestine. No data are available in Palestine related to this topic. Therefore, the following data collection methodologies were applied:

  1. 1.

    One-to-one interviews with experts from the private, public, government, and educational sectors inside and outside Palestine were conducted between 1/9/2021 and 30/8/2022. The experts were presented with a set of interview questions that focused on the current status of AI in their domain and the opportunities and challenges of applying AI in Palestine.

  2. 2.

    Exploratory research to analyze the higher education BSc and MSc programs, and identify AI courses across universities in Palestine. The data were retrieved from the Ministry of Higher Education in Palestine.

  3. 3.

    Exploratory research to analyze tech-based educational courses at schools in Palestine. The material taught to school students between fifth grade and twelfth grade was analyzed to assess their coverage of AI-related topics.

  4. 4.

    Focus groups to assess school students’ and teachers’ awareness of artificial intelligence and identify the existing gaps.

  5. 5.

    Focus group with MSc students enrolled in AI-related topics.

  6. 6.

    Questionnaire to assess the Palestinian community’s awareness of AI and identify the existing gaps. The questionnaire consisted of 25 questions to assess participants’ knowledge of AI, AI applications, and gaps to apply AI in Palestine. The questionnaire focused on awareness of Weak AI.

3.3 Participants

Three different groups of participants were involved in the study and informed consent was obtained. The first group included 45 key experts (45+ interview hours) from the private, public, government, and educational sectors inside and outside Palestine. Experts included ministers, chief executive officers from private companies, banks, non-governmental organizations (NGO), incubators, and accelerators in Palestine.

The second group included the following three focus groups:

  • Ten MSc students enrolled in AI-related programs.

  • Eight school teachers teaching technology course.

  • Forty school students (42.8% females and 57.2% males).

The third group consisted of a sample of 240 (44% males and 55.2% females) participants which represent the Palestinian community as it included representatives from the educational, governmental, and private sectors.

4 Results and discussion

This section illustrates the research questions and presents the results obtained.

4.1 Awareness of Palestinians about artificial intelligence

Fig. 1
figure 1

What is your assessment of the level of awareness of the following aspects of AI in Palestine

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To assess the level of AI awareness among Palestinians, interviews were conducted with 45 experts and 3 focus groups, and a questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 240 people. The results revealed that Palestinians have low awareness of the concept and applications of AI in public, private, educational, leadership, innovation, and research and development sectors. The results of the questionnaire also confirmed that the following topics were not discussed in the field of AI in Palestine (Fig. 1):

  • Opportunities and risks of AI in the government digital transformation.

  • AI opportunities and risks in addressing climate change, water management, and natural disaster risk reduction.

  • The opportunities and risks of AI in teaching and learning.

  • Opportunities and risks of AI in creating jobs and contributing to economic growth.

  • The opportunities and risks of AI on creativity, language, media, and journalism.

  • Implications for human rights, such as privacy, discrimination, and equality.

4.2 AI in education

This section aims to examine the integration of AI into the Palestinian educational curriculum at schools and universities.

4.2.1 AI in Palestinian schools

Palestinian schools introduced a technology course that is taught to students from the fifth grade to the twelfth grade. The topics related to AI in each grade are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 Coverage of AI topic in Palestinian schools
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To assess the knowledge of school students about AI concept and teachers’ perspective on the importance of adding educational materials focusing on AI topics to the Palestinian curriculum, the following two focus groups were carried out:

  • A focus group with 40 school students (57.2% of participants were male and 42.8% were female) enrolled in grades 5 up to 12 (Fig. 2)

  • Eight teachers teaching the technology course at schools.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Percentage of school students participating in focus groups

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The results revealed that 42% of students stated that they know the definition of AI (Fig. 3). This is expected since the definition is introduced in the educational curriculum. However, there is a gap in students’ understanding of the practical applications of AI. More than 50% of school students did not recognize the practical applications of AI. Figure 4 shows that only 15% of school students knew that AI is used in social medial applications such as TikTok (De Leyn et al. 2021). This indicates that students’ have low awareness of the applications of AI.

On the other hand, 90% of the students participating in the study expressed interest to learn more about AI and its applications. Teachers had a similar opinion as they strongly agreed that adding AI-related topics to the Palestinian curriculum is necessary since minimal information is provided in the current curriculum.

Fig. 3
figure 3

School students’ knowledge of the definition of AI

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Fig. 4
figure 4

School students’ knowledge of AI applications

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4.2.2 AI in Palestinian universities

The AI Index 2021 annual report released by Stanford University revealed that there is a total of 1032 AI programs in 27 European Union countries (Zhang et al. 2021). The vast majority of academic programs specialized in AI in the European Union are taught at the master’s level. The programs aim to provide students with strong competencies for the workforce. Germany provides the highest number of programs specialized in AI, followed by the Netherlands, France, and Sweden.

In Palestine, the number of universities and colleges is 55 (Palestinian Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research 2022), and only 9% of Palestinian universities and colleges offer academic programs specialized in AI. Palestine offers six programs specialized in AI, which is close to other countries in the European Union. These programs constitute only 2.6% of the 224 technological academic programs offered at universities and colleges. The vast majority of these programs (83.3%) are master’s programs and there is still no Ph.D. program specialized in AI.

The results also revealed that the number of graduates from Palestinian colleges and universities specializing in AI between 2016 and 2021 is very low. Table 2 shows that only 28 out of 13,939 students are specialized in AI. Moreover, 60.7% of students are males and 39.3% are females. This indicates the low participation of females in the field of AI, in contrast to their close participation in various technological sectors (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Percentage of male and female graduates in technological disciplines

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Table 2 Number of graduates in the technology sector in Palestine between 2016 and 2021
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In 2022, the number of graduates specializing in AI in Palestine doubled by nearly 2.7 (the number of students increased from 28 to 76). However, the number of students enrolled in Palestinian universities specializing in AI constitutes only 0.1% of the 104,499 enrolled in Palestinian universities and colleges from 2016 to 2021, which is a very small percentage. This contributes to the asymmetry between AI skills and industry needs which is currently a pain point in many countries that published their AI national strategies (Vats et al. 2022).

The results revealed that Palestine is at a very early stage in terms of the availability of educational resources and trainers. This was confirmed in the interviews with 45 experts and the results of a survey that were published to 240 participants to assess the awareness of the Palestinian community in AI and to identify gaps. The results showed that 53.3% of the sample confirmed that AI educational resources are not available, and 46% of the sample confirmed the lack of expertise in the field of AI (Table 3).

Table 3 Availability of AI educational resources and trainers to develop and use AI in Palestine
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Further analysis was carried out with a focus group of ten master’s students enrolled in AI programs at Palestinian universities. The group confirmed the low awareness of the importance of AI in the educational and technological sectors in Palestine. This is due to the lack of AI-applied courses in Palestinian universities. The group also agreed that the labor market in Palestine has become more interested in the field of AI.

4.3 AI in entrepreneurial ecosystem

Palestine has 102 technology-based startups and 94 registered organizations that have worked during the year 2021 and have at least 1 program or project focused on empowering startups (Polaris 2021). The vast majority of startups are e-commerce companies, followed by the education and health sector (see Fig. 6).

Fig. 6
figure 6

Startups per sector in Palestine (Polaris 2021)

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Further analyses were carried out to examine the usage of AI technology in existing startups. The results revealed that a small percentage of startups use AI (0.09%). This was confirmed in interviews with experts leading technology incubators and accelerators, as they emphasized that the number of AI startups is small and there is not enough expertise to evaluate or supervise startups during the incubation and acceleration process in Palestine.

4.4 AI in research and development

According to EduRank, there are 1.51 million academic publications in the field of AI submitted by 2797 universities in the world (EduRank 2022). Table 4 shows the top universities in the world ranked based on their research performance in AI. In the MENA region, the number of publications per university highly decreased and the region achieves merely 5.5% of peer-reviewed AI publications (Economist Impact 2022). Table 5 shows the universities in the MENA region with the highest number of publications.

Table 4 Top universities in the world ranked based on their research performance in artificial intelligence
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Table 5 Top universities in the Arab world ranked based on their research performance in artificial intelligence
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Table 6 Universities in Palestine ranked based on their research performance in artificial intelligence
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In Palestine, the total publications across universities are less than the publications in the American University of Beirut (see Table 6 ).

The results revealed that Palestine had minimal knowledge in the field of AI. This was also confirmed in the interviews with experts and the results of the questionnaire published to 240 people. Figure 7 shows that 56.5% of the sample confirmed that there is a limited number of research centers and a lack of human resources and expertise in the field of AI. This was also confirmed by the interviews with experts who emphasized that there are no links between global AI expertise and national and global AI researchers.

Fig. 7
figure 7

Status of research and development in Palestine

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4.5 AI in governmental sector

The results of the interviews and the questionnaire published to 240 participants showed that 31% of the sample believed that the level of governmental participation in topics related to AI is at an early development stage (see Fig. 8).

Fig. 8
figure 8

Level of government participation in topics related to AI

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4.6 AI and privacy and protection

Based on the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 128 out of 194 countries had put in place legislation to secure the protection of data and privacy (UNCTAD 2021). Table 7 shows the status of protection of data and privacy laws in the MENA region. The status of Privacy and Protection laws in Palestine is also at a very early stage. An exploratory study had been carried out by “7amleh” to study the status of privacy and digital data protection in Palestine (7amleh 2021). The results revealed that there are no laws and legislation in Palestine which keep pace with trending technologies. This causes privacy and data protection violations.

Table 7 Laws for protecting the privacy and digital data in the Arab world based on the UNCTAD (UNCTAD 2021)
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This was also confirmed by the research results, as the questionnaire, focus groups, and interviews with experts confirmed that there is a gap in the development of a legal framework that keeps pace with AI. 83.3% of 240 participants confirmed that the legal frameworks have not yet been developed to keep pace with AI in Palestine.

4.7 AI national strategy overview

This section translates the aforementioned findings into a strategic framework that tries to address weaknesses and minimize threats while building on strengths and opportunities. The government sector in Palestine is currently undergoing a significant digital transformation, which inevitably needs to happen concurrently with the implementation of the AI strategy. Additionally, to demonstrate the value of AI across various domains, it is critical to focus on areas where the greatest gains can be made in the short term given that the country has relatively few resources. Therefore, the following sections present the AI national strategy vision and mission statements that spell out precisely what Palestine hopes to accomplish by implementing AI, and where tradeoffs will be made. In addition, it illustrates the objectives and main pillars required to achieve the objectives.

4.7.1 Vision

The AI national strategy vision is “A globally distinguished position in Artificial Intelligence, with sustainable productivity, economic gains, and creation of new areas of growth.”

4.7.2 Mission

The AI national strategy mission is to “Establish an Artificial Intelligence industry in Palestine that includes the development of skills, technology, and infrastructure to ensure its sustainability and competitiveness.”

4.7.3 Goals

To achieve the aforementioned vision and mission, Palestine will work on the following goals:

  • Support lifelong learning and reskilling programs to contribute to workforce development and sustainability.

  • Facilitate multi-stakeholder dialogue on the deployment of responsible AI for the benefit of society and encourage relevant policy discussions.

  • Encourage investment in AI research and entrepreneurship through partnerships between the public and private sectors, initiatives, universities, and research centers.

  • Make Palestine a regional center and a talent pool in the field of AI by meeting the needs of local and regional markets and attracting international experts and researchers specialized in AI.

  • Integrating AI technologies into government services to ensure the services are more efficient and transparent.

  • Use AI in the main development sectors to achieve an economic impact and find solutions to local problems in line with the goals of sustainable development.

  • Create a thriving environment for AI by encouraging and supporting companies, startups, and scientific research.

  • Promote a human-centered approach in which people’s well-being is a priority and facilitate multi-stakeholder dialogue on the deployment of responsible AI for the benefit of society.

  • Using AI as an opportunity to include marginalized people in initiatives that promote human advancement and self-development.

  • Facilitate cooperation at the local, regional, and international levels in the field of AI.

  • Contribute to global efforts and international forums on AI ethics, the future of work, responsible AI, and the social and economic impact of AI.

  • Support the research bridges between Palestinian and international universities in the field of AI.

In addition to the aforementioned goals, the AI national strategy will help achieve the following numeric goals in the upcoming 5 years: having 300 graduates specialized in AI, 100 specialists in the field of AI in Palestine, systematic integration of AI into 4 educational sectors, 30% of the technology startups in Palestine use AI technology, 10% of private companies in Palestine adopt AI-based solutions, 200 published research papers in the field of AI in Palestine, 20 people specializing in privacy and digital data protection, and 50 datasets uploaded into opendata website in Palestine.

4.7.4 AI national strategy pillars

To achieve the goals above, the strategy has been divided into the following five main pillars:

  • AI for Government: the rapid adoption of AI technology via the automation of governmental procedures and the integration of AI into the decision-making process to improve productivity and transparency.

  • AI for Development: apply AI to several industries using a staged strategy to realize efficiencies, achieve more economic growth, and improve competitiveness. This could be achieved through domestic and international partnerships.

  • AI for Capacity Building: spread awareness and provide personalized training to private, public, and governmental sectors.

  • AI and Legal Framework: develop a legal framework to empower using AI across several sectors.

  • International Activities: play a key role in fostering cooperation on the regional and international levels by championing relevant initiatives, and actively participating in AI-related discussions and international projects.

These five pillars form a comprehensive approach to the AI national strategies, covering the government’s role, industry-specific implementation, workforce development, legal considerations, and international collaboration. By addressing these dimensions, Palestine can establish a solid foundation for responsible, inclusive, and sustainable AI deployment (Chatterjee 2020; Nankervis et al. 2021; Barton et al. 2017).

4.8 AI national strategy governance

AI national strategy governance is essential to ensure the implementation of AI national strategy. It guides the responsible and effective adoption, development, and use of AI in Palestine. Therefore, in 6/9/2021, the Council of Ministries in Palestine approved the decision to form an AI national team headed by the Ministry of Telecommunications and Information Technology and had 16 representatives from several ministries in Palestine, the private sector, and the educational sector (Telecommunication and Technology 2023). The national team is responsible for implementing and managing the AI national strategy in coordination with relevant experts and agencies. Their responsibilities can be summarized as follows:

  • Establishing a follow-up mechanism for the implementation of the AI national strategy which is consistent with international best practices in this field.

  • Setting national priorities in the field of AI applications.

  • Reviewing any form of cooperation at the regional and international levels, including the exchange of best practices and experiences.

  • Providing recommendations for national policies and plans related to technical, legal, and economic frameworks for AI applications.

  • Recommending programs for capacity building and to support the AI industry in Palestine.

  • Reviewing international protocols and agreements in the field of AI.

In addition to the AI national team, an advisory committee has been formed from the private and educational sectors in Palestine to support and assist the AI national team and help them achieve their responsibilities.

5 Conclusion

Sixty countries worldwide published their AI national strategies (Zhang et al. 2021). The approach of AI national strategies differentiates between developed and developing countries, since developed countries are consumers of technologies produced by developing countries (Monasterio Astobiza et al. 2022). Moreover, developed countries have low awareness of applications of AI across several fields (Kahn et al. 2018). This increases the gap in AI technology development between developed and developing countries (Kahn et al. 2018).

This paper aims to identify AI national strategy pillars in a developing country. Therefore, the paper assessed the AI status across education, entrepreneurship, government, and research and development sectors in Palestine (the case of a developing country). In addition, it examined the legal framework and whether it is coping with trending technologies.

Three different groups of participants were involved in the study. The first group included 45 experts (45+ interview hours) from the private, public, government, and educational sectors inside and outside Palestine. The second group included three focus groups which consisted of MSc students enrolled in AI-related programs, school teachers, and school students. The third group consisted of a sample of 240 participants which represent the Palestinian community as it included representatives from the educational, governmental, and private sectors.

The results revealed that Palestinians have low awareness of AI. Moreover, AI is barely used across several sectors and the legal framework is not coping with trending technologies. The results helped develop and identify five main pillars Palestine should focus on in the AI national strategy: AI for Government, AI for Development, AI for Capacity Building in the private, public, technical, and governmental sectors, AI and Legal Framework, and International Activities. The pillars will help achieve the following in the upcoming 5 years: having 300 graduates specialized in AI, 100 specialists in the field of AI in Palestine, systematic integration of AI into 4 educational sectors, 30% of the technology startups in Palestine use artificial intelligence techniques, 10% of private companies in Palestine adopt AI-based solutions, 200 published research papers in the field of artificial intelligence in Palestine, 20 people specializing in privacy and digital data protection, and 50 datasets uploaded into opendata website in Palestine. The AI national strategy was approved by the Palestinian cabinet in June 2023.

In the future, further analysis will be carried out to assess Palestinians’ awareness of Weak and Strong AI, in addition to the progress and outcome of AI national strategy across education, entrepreneurship, government, and research and development sectors.