Abstract
Platinum-group element (PGE) deposits in the Bushveld Complex and other layered intrusions form when large, incompletely solidified magma chambers undergo central subsidence in response to crustal loading, resulting in slumping of semi-consolidated cumulate slurries to the centres of the intrusions and hydrodynamic unmixing of the slurries to form dense layers enriched in sulfides, oxides, olivine and pyroxene and less dense layers enriched in plagioclase. The most economic PGE, Cr and V reefs form in large, multiple-replenished intrusions because these cool relatively slowly and their central portions subside prior to termination of magmatism and complete cumulate solidification. The depth of emplacement has to be relatively shallow as, otherwise, ductile crust would not be able to flex and collapse. In smaller intrusions, cooling rates are faster, subsidence is less pronounced and, where it occurs, the cumulate may be largely solidified, resulting in insignificant mush mobility and mineral sorting. Layering is thus less pronounced and less regular and continuous and the grades of the reefs are lower, but the reefs can be relatively thicker. An additional factor controlling the PGE, Cr and V prospectivity of intrusions is their location within cratons. Intra-cratonic environments offer more stable emplacement conditions that are more amenable to the formation of large, layered igneous bodies. Furthermore, intrusions sited within cratons are more readily preserved because cratons are underlain by thick, buoyant keels of harzburgite that prevent plate tectonic recycling and destruction of crust.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alapieti TT, Lahtinen JJ (2002) Platinum-group element mineralization in layered intrusions of northern Finland and the Kola Peninsula, Russia. In: Cabri LJ (ed) The geology, geochemistry, mineralogy and mineral beneficiation of platinum-group elements. Can Inst Min Metall Spec Vol. 54:507–546
Alapieti TT, Kujanpää J, Lahtinen JJ, Papunen H (1989) The Kemi stratiform chromitite deposit, northern Finland. Econ Geol 84:1057–1077
Andersen JCØ, Thalhammer OAR (2006) Platinum-group element and Re–Os isotope variations of the high-grade Kilvenjärvi platinum-group element deposit, Portimo Layered Igneous Complex, Finland. Econ Geol 101:159–177
Andersen JCØ, Rasmussen H, Nielsen TFD, Ronsbo JG (1998) The triple group and the platinova Au and Pd reefs in the Skaergaard intrusion: stratigraphic and petrographic relations. Econ Geol 93:485–509
Armitage PEB, McDonald I, Edwards SJ, Manby GM (2002) Platinum-group element mineralization in the Platreef and calc-silicate footwall at Sandsloot, Potgietersrus District, South Africa. Trans Inst Min Metall B 111:36–45
Arndt NT (2005) The conduits of magmatic ore deposits. In: Mungall JE (ed) Exploration for platinum-group element deposits. Min Assoc Can., Short Course Series 35: 181-201
Arndt N, Jenner G, Ohnenstetter M, Deloule E, Wilson AH (2005) Trace elements in the Merensky Reef and adjacent norites Bushveld Complex South Africa. Mineralium Deposita 40:550–575
Ashwal LD (1990) Anorthosites. Springer, Berlin, p 422
Ashwal LD, Webb SJ, Knoper MW (2005) Magmatic stratigraphy in the Bushveld northern lobe: continous geophysical and mineralogical data from the 2950 m Bellevue drillcore. S Afr J Geol 108:199–232
Balane E, De Villiers JPR, Eeckhout SG, Glatzel P, Toplis MJ, Allard T, Fritsche, Galoisy L, Calas G (2006) The oxidation state of vanadium in titanomagnetite from layered basic intrusions. Am Mineral 91:953–956
Ballhaus CG (1988) Potholes of the Merensky Reef at Brakspruit shaft, Rustenburg platinum mines: primary disturbances in the magmatic stratigraphy. Econ Geol 83:1140–1158
Ballhaus CG, Stumpfl EF (1986) Sulphide and platinum mineralization in the Merensky Reef: evidence from hydrous silicates and fluid inclusions. Contrib Mineral Petrol 94:193–204
Ballhaus CG, Sylvester P (2000) Noble metal enrichment processes in the Merensky Reef, Bushveld Complex. J Petrol 41:545–561
Barnes SJ (1989) Are Bushveld U-type parent magmas boninites or contaminated komatiites? Contrib Min Petrol 101:447–457
Barnes SJ (1993) Partitioning of the PGE and gold between silicate and sulphide magmas in the Munni Munni Complex, Western Australia. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 57:1277–1290
Barnes S-J (1998a) Why are Pd/Pt, Rh/Pt, Pd/Ir and Pd/Os ratios higher in sulfide ores than in mafic and ultramafic magmas? EOS 78:F799
Barnes SJ (1998b) Chromites in komatiites, 1: magmatic controls on crystallization and composition. J Petrol 39:1689–1720
Barnes SJ, Fiorentini ML (2008) Iridium, ruthenium and rhodium in komatiites: evidence for iridium alloy saturation. Chem Geol 257:44–58
Barnes SJ, Naldrett AJ (1985) Geochemistry of the J-M (Howland) reef of the stillwater complex, Minneapolis adit area; I, sulfide chemistry and sulfide-olivine equilibrium. Econ Geol 80:627–645
Barnes SJ, Naldrett AJ (1986) Geochemistry of the J-M reef of the Stillwater Complex, Minneapolis Adit area II: silicate mineral chemistry and petrogenesis. J Petrol 27:791–825
Barnes SJ, Osborne G, Cook D, Barnes L, Maier WD, Godel B (2011) The Santa Rita Ni sulfide deposit in the Fazenda Mirabela intrusion, Bahia, Brazil: geology, sulfide geochemistry and genesis. Econ Geol 106:1083–1110
Barnes S-J, Picard CP (1993) The behaviour of platinum-group elements during partial melting, crystal fractionation, and sulphide segregation: an example from the Cape Smith Fold Belt, northern Quebec. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 57:79–87
Barnes S-J, Maier WD (2002a) Platinum-group elements and microstructures of normal Merensky Reef from Impala Platinum Mines, Bushveld Complex. J Petrol 43:103–128
Barnes S-J, Maier WD (2002b) Platinum-group element distributions in the Rustenburg layered suite of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. In: Cabri LJ (ed) The geology, geochemistry, mineralogy and mineral beneficiation of platinum-group elements. Can Inst Min Metall Spec Vol 54:431–458
Barnes S-J, Naldrett AJ, Gorton MP (1985) The origin of the fractionation of platinum-group elements in terrestrial magmas. Chem Geol 53:303–323
Barnes S-J, Maier WD, Ashwal LD (2004) Platinum-group elements in the Upper Zone of the Bushveld Complex. Chem Geol 208:293–317
Barnes S-J, Savard D, Bédard LP, Maier WD (2009) Selenium and sulfur concentrations in the Bushveld Complex of South Africa and implications for formation of the platinum-group element deposits. Mineralium Deposita 44:647–663
Barnes S-J, Maier WD, Curl E (2010) Composition of the marginal rocks and sills of the Rustenburg layered suite, Bushveld Complex, South Africa: implications for the formation of the PGE deposits. Econ Geol 105:1491–1511
Barry JA (1964) Pothole and koppie investigation at Rustenburg Platinum Mines. Internal report, Johannesburg Consolidated Industries, 5 pp
Barton JM, Cawthorn RG, White JA (1986) The role of contamination in the evolution of the Platreef of the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 81:1096–1108
Becker H, Horan MF, Walker RJ, Gao S, Lorand J-P, Rudnick RL (2006) Highly siderophile element composition of the Earth’s primitive mantle: constraints from new data on peridotite massifs and xenoliths. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 70:4528–4550
Bédard JH (1994) A procedure for calculating the equilibrium distribution of trace elements among the minerals of cumulate rocks, and the concentration of trace elements in the coexisting liquids. Chem Geol 118:143–153
Bédard JP, Sparks RSJ, Renner R, Cheadle MJ, Hallworth MA (1988) Peridotite sills and metasomatic gabbros in the eastern layered series of the Rhum complex. J Geol Soc Lond 145:207–224
Bédard JHJ, Marsh BD, Hersum TG, Naslund HR, Mukasa SB (2007) Large-scale mechanical redistribution of orthopyroxene and plagioclase in the basement sill, ferrar dolerites, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica: petrological, mineral–chemical and field evidence for channelized movement of crystals and melt. J Pet 48:2289–2326
Begg GC, Griffin WL, Natapov LM, O’Reilly SY, Grand SP, O’Neill CJ, Hronsky JMA (2009) The lithospheric architecture of Africa: seismic tomography, mantle petrology, and tectonic evolution. Geosphere 5:23–50
Borisov A, Palme H (2000) Solubilities of noble metals in Fe containing silicate melt as derived from experiments in Fe-free systems. Amer Mineral 85:1665–1673
Boudreau AE (1988) Investigations of the Stillwater Complex: 4. The role of volatiles in the petrogenesis of the J-M Reef, Minneapolis adit section. Can Min 26:193–208
Boudreau AE (1994) Mineral segregation during crystal ageing in two-crystal, two-component systems. S Afr J Geol 97:473–485
Boudreau AE (1999) PELE—a version of the MELTS software program for the PC platform. Computers Geosci 25:201–203
Boudreau AE (2008) Modelling the Merensky Reef, Bushveld Complex, Republic of South Africa. Contrib Min Petrol 156:431–437
Boudreau AE, McCallum IS (1992) Concentration of platinum-group elements by magmatic fluids in layered intrusions. Econ Geol 87:1830–1848
Boudreau AE, Meurer WP (1999a) Concentration of platinum-group elements by magmatic fluids in layered intrusions. Econ Geol 94:1830–1848
Boudreau AE, Meurer WP (1999b) Chromatographic separation of the platinum-group elements, gold, base metals and sulfur during degassing of a compacting and solidifying igneous crystal pile. Contr Mineral Petrol 134:174–185
Brenan JM, Andrews D (2001) High-temperature stability of laurite and Ru–Os–Ir alloy and their role in PGE fractionation in mafic magmas. Can Mineral 39:341–360
Bristow DG, Cawthorn RG, Harmer J, Lee CA, Tegner C, Viljoen MJ, Walraven F, Wislson JR (1993) Excursion guide—symposium on layering in igneous complexes. Wager and Brown 25th Anniversary Commemorative Meeting, Johannesburg, 59 pp
Brown GM (1956) The layered ultrabasic rocks of Rhum, inner Hebrides. Phil Trans Roy Soc Lond B240:1–53
Buchanan DL (1975) The petrography of the Bushveld Complex intersected by boreholes in the Bethal area. Trans Geol Soc S Afr 78:335–348
Buchanan DL, Nolan J, Suddaby P, Rouse JE, Viljoen MJ, Davenport JWJ (1981) The genesis of sulfide mineralization in a portion of the Potgietersrus limb of the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 76:568–579
Buick IS, Maas R, Gibson R (2001) Precise U–Pb titanite age constraints on the emplacement of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. J Geol Soc Lond 158:3–6
Buntin TJ, Granstaff DE, Ulmer GC, Gold DP (1985) A pilot study of geochemical and redox relationships between potholes and adjacent Merensky Reef on the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 80:975–987
Bursztyn NE, Olivo GR (2010) PGE rich Ni–Cu sulfide mineralization in the Flin Flon greenstone belt, Manitoba, Canada: implications for hydrothermal remobilization of platinum-group elements in basic–ultrabasic sequences. Econ Geol 105:1469–1490
Button A (1976) Stratigraphy and relations of the Bushveld floor in the eastern Transvaal. Trans Geol Soc S Afr 79:3–12
Cameron EN (1963) Structure and rock sequence of the critical zone of the Eastern Bushveld Complex. Min Soc Am Spec Pap 1:93–107
Cameron EN (1978) The lower zone of the eastern Bushveld Complex in the Olifants River trough. J Petrol 19:437–462
Cameron EN (1980) Evolution of the lower critical zone, central sector, eastern Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 75:845–871
Cameron EN (1982) The upper critical zone of the eastern Bushveld Complex—precursor of the Merensky Reef. Econ Geol 77:1307–1327
Campbell G (1990) The seismic revolution in gold and platinum prospecting. S Afr Geophys Assoc Yb BPI Geophys Univ Witwatersrand Johannesburg, S Afr:37–45.
Campbell IH (1978) Some problems with the cumulus theory. Lithos 11:311–323
Campbell IH (1986a) Distribution of orthocumulate textures in the Jimberlana intrusion. J Geol 95:35–54
Campbell IH (1986b) A fluid-dynamic model for the potholes of the Merensky Reef. Econ Geol 81:1118–1125
Campbell IH, Naldrett AJ (1979) The influence of silicate:sulfide ratios on the geochemistry of magmatic sulfides. Econ Geol 74:1503–1505
Campbell IH, Naldrett AJ, Barnes SJ (1983) A model for the origin of the platinum-rich sulfide horizons in the Bushveld and Stillwater Complexes. J Petrol 24:133–165
Carr HW, Groves DI, Cawthorn RG (1994) The importance of syn-magmatic deformation in the formation of Merensky Reef potholes in the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 89:1398–1410
Cawthorn RG (1999a) The platinum and palladium resources of the Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Sci 95:481–489
Cawthorn RG (1999b) The discovery of the platiniferous Marensky Reef in 1924. S Afr J Geol 102:178–183
Cawthorn RG (2002) Magma mixing models for Merensky-style mineralization: the fallacy of binary diagrams. Econ Geol 97:663–665
Cawthorn RG (2005) Pressure fluctuations and the formation of the PGE rich Merensky and chromitite reefs, Bushveld Complex. Mineralium Deposita 40:231–235
Cawthorn RG, Ashwal LD (2009) Origin of anorthosite and magnetite layers in the Bushveld Complex, constrained by major element compositions of plagioclase. J Petrol 50:1607–1637
Cawthorn RG, Boerst K (2006) Origin of pegmatitic pyroxenite in the Merensky Unit, Bushveld Complex, South Africa. J Petrol 47:1509–1530
Cawthorn RG, McCarthy TS (1980) Variations in Cr content of magnetite from the Upper Zone of the Bushveld Complex—evidence for heterogeneity and convection currents in magma chambers. Earth Planet Sci Lett 46:335–343
Cawthorn RG, Molyneux T (1986) Vanadiferous magnetite deposits of the Bushveld Complex. In: Anhaeusser, CR Maske, S (eds) Mineral deposits of Southern Africa. Geol Soc S Afr Johannesburg: 1251–1266
Cawthorn RG, Walraven F (1998) Emplacement and crystallization time for the Bushveld Complex. J Petrol 39:1669–1687
Cawthorn RG, Davies G, Clubley-Armstrong A, McCarthy TS (1981) Sills associated with the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Lithos 14:1–15
Cawthorn RG, Barton JR, Viljoen MJ (1985) Interaction of floor rocks with the Platreef on Overysel, Potgietersrus, northern Transvaal. Econ Geol 80:988–1006
Cawthorn RG, Meyer PS, Kruger J (1991) Major addition of magma at the Pyroxenite Marker in the western Bushveld Complex, South Africa. J Petrol 32:739–763
Cawthorn RG, Cooper GRJ, Webb SJ (1998) Connectivity between the western and eastern limbs of the Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Geol 101:291–298
Cawthorn RG, Merkle RKW, Viljoen MJ (2002) Platinum-group element deposits in the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. In: Cabri LJ (ed) The geology, geochemistry, mineralogy and mineral beneficiation of platinum-group elements. Can Inst Min Metall Spec 54:389–429
Chambers AD, Brown PE (1995) Lilloise Intrusion, East Greenland: fractionation of a hydrous alkali picritic magma. J Petrol 36:933–963
Charlier B, Namur O, Toplis MJ, Schiano P, Cluzel N, Higgins MD, Vander Auwera J (2011) Large-scale silicate liquid immiscibility during differentiation of tholeiitic basalt to granite and the origin of the Daly gap. Geology 39:907–910
Chung H-Y, Mungall JE (2009) Physical constraints on the migration of immiscible fluids through partially molten silicates, with special reference to magmatic sulfide ores. Earth Planet Sci Lett 286:14–22
Clarke B, Uken R, Reinhardt J (2009) Structural and compositional constraints on the emplacement of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Lithos 111:21–36
Coertze FJ (1958) Intrusive relationship and ore deposits in the western part of the Bushveld igneous Complex. Trans Geol Soc S Afr 61:387–392
Coertze FJ, Burger AJ, Walraven F, Marlow AG, McCaskie DR (1978) Field relations and age determinations in the Bushveld Complex. Trans Geol Soc S Afr 81:1–11
Cousins CA (1959) The structure of the mafic portion of the Bushveld igneous complex. Trans Geol Soc S Afr 62:179–189
Cousins CA (1964) The platinum deposits of the Merensky Reef. In: Haughton SH (ed) The geology of some ore deposits in southern Africa, vol 2. Geol Soc S Afr Johannesburg: 225–237
Cousins CA, Feringa G (1964) The chromite deposits of the western belt of the Bushveld Complex. In: Haughton, SH (ed) The geology of some ore deposits in Southern Africa, vol. 2. Geol Soc S Afr, Johannesburg:183–202
Crowson P (2001) Mineral handbook 2000–2001. Mining Journal Books, Edenbridge, p 486
Curl EA (2001) Parental magmas of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Ph.D. thesis, Monash University, Australia, p 140
Czamanske GK, Zientek ML (1985) The Stillwater Complex, Montana: geology and guide. Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology. Spec Pub 92:396
Davies G, Tredoux M (1985) The platinum-group element and gold contents of the marginal rocks and sills of the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 80:838–848
Davies G, Cawthorn RG, Barton JM, Morton M (1980) Parental magma to the Bushveld Complex. Nature 287:33–35
De Klerk WJ (1992) Petrogenesis of the Upper Critical Zone of the Western Bushveld Complex with emphasis on the UG1 footwall and Bastard Units. Ph.D. thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown: 294 pp
De Waal SA (1975) The mineralogy, chemistry, and certain aspects of reactivity of chromitite from the Bushveld Complex. National Institute for Metallurgy Report 1709, Johannesburg
De Waal SA, Armstrong RA (2000) The age of the Marble Hall diorite, its relationship to the Uitkomst Complex, and evidence for a new magma type associated with the Bushveld igneous event. S Afr J Geol 103:128–140
Eales HV (2002) Caveats in defining the magmas parental to the mafic rocks of the Bushveld Complex, and the manner of their emplacement: review and commentary. Mineralog Mag 66:815–832
Eales HV, Cawthorn RG (1996) The Bushveld Complex. In: Cawthorn RG (ed) Layered intrusions. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 181–229
Eales HV, Costin G (2012) Crustally contaminated komatiite: primary source of the chromitites and Marginal, Lower, and Critical Zone magmas in a staging chamber beneath the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 107:645–665
Eales HV, Marsh JS, Mitchell AA, De Klerk WJ, Kruger FJ, Field M (1986) Some geochemical constraints upon models for the crystallization of the Upper Critical Zone–Main Zone interval, northwestern Bushveld Complex. Mineralog Mag 50:567–582
Eales HV, Field M, de Klerk WJ, Scoon RN (1988) Regional trends of chemical variation and thermal erosion in the Upper Critical Zone, western Bushveld Complex. Mineralog Mag 52:63–79
Eales HV, De Klerk WJ, Teigler B (1990) Evidence for magma mixing processes within the critical and lower zones of the northwestern Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Chem Geol 88:261–278
Edou-Minko A, Grandin G, Campiglio C (2002) Petrologie et geomorphologie dans la region de Kango, Gabon: un grand dyke ultramafique-mafique Archeen. J Afr Earth Sci 32:899–918
Emeleus CH (1986) The Rhum layered complex, inner Hebrides, Scotland. In: Parsons I (ed) Origins of igneous layering. D Reidel, Dordrecht, pp 263–286
Emerman SH (1991) Correlation of a dyke swarn in southeastern Botswana with the Pilanesberg dyke swarm, South Africa. J Afr Earth Sci 12:525–531
Emslie RF (1965) The Michikamau anorthositic intrusion, Labrador. Can J Earth Sci 2:385–399
Fiorentini ML, Barnes SJ, Maier WD, Heggie GJ (2011) Global variability in the PGE contents of komatiites. J Petrol 52:82–112
Francis D, Ludden J (1995) The signature of amphibole in mafic alkaline lavas, a study in the northern Canadian Cordillera. J Petrol 36:1171–1191
Freestone IC (1978) Liquid immiscibility in alkali-rich magmas. Chem Geol 23:116–123
Gain SB (1985) The geologic setting of the platiniferous UG2 chromitite layer on Maandagshoek, eastern Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 80:925–943
Gain SB, Mostert AB (1982) The geologic setting of the platinoid and base metal sulfide mineralization in the Platreef of the Bushveld Complex on Drenthe, north of Potgietersrus. Econ Geol 77:1395–1404
Gauert CDK (1998) The petrogenesis of the Uitkomst Complex, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Ph.D. thesis, Univ Pretoria: 315pp
Gauert CDK, de Waal SA, Wallmach T (1995) Geology of the ultrabasic to basic Uitkomst Complex, estarn Transvaal, South Africa: an overview. J Afr Earth Sci 21:553–570
Godel B, Barnes S-J, Maier WD (2006) 3-D distribution of sulphide minerals in the Merensky Reef (Bushveld Complex, South Africa) and the J-M reef (Stillwater Complex, USA) and their relationship to microstructures using X-ray computed tomography. J Petrol 47:1853–1872
Godel B, Barnes S-J, Maier WD (2007) The Merensky Reef of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa: a mass balance of platinum group elements in sulfide minerals, platinum group minerals and the whole rock. J Petrol 48:1569–1604
Godel B, Barnes S-J, Maier WD (2011) Parental magma composition inferred from in situ trace elements in cumulus and intercumulus silicate minerals: example from the lower and lower critical zones of the Bushveld Complex (South-Africa). Lithos 125:537–552
Griffin WL, Graham S, O’Reilly SY, Pearson NJ (2004) Lithosphere evolution beneath the Kaapvaal Craton: Re–Os systematics of sulfides in mantle-derived peridotites. Chem Geol 208:89–118
Groves DI, Ho SE, Rock NMS, Barley ME, Muggeridge MT (1987) Archean cratons, diamond and platinum: evidence for coupled long-lived crust–mantle systems. Geology 15:801–805
Groves DI, Vielreicher RM, Goldfarb RJ, Condie KC (2005) Controls on the heterogenous distribution of mineral deposits through time. Geol Soc Lond Spec Pub 248:71–101
Gurney JJ, Helmstaedt HH, LeRoex AP, Nowicki TE, Richardson SH, Westerlund KJ (2005). Diamonds: crustal distribution and formation processes in time and space and an integrated deposit model. Econ Geol 100th Anniv Vol: 143–177
Hahn UF, Ovendale B (1994) UG2 chromitite layer potholes at Wildebeestfontein North Mine, Impala Platinum Limited, XVth CMMI Congress, Johannesburg. S Afr Inst Min Metall 3:195–200
Halkoaho TAA (1994) The Sompujärvi and Ala-Penikka PGE reefs in the Penikat layered intrusion, northern Finland. Acta Universitatis Ouluensis Ser A 249:122
Halkoaho TAA, Alapieti TT, Lahtinen JJ (1990a) The Sompujärvi PGE reef in the Penikat layered intrusion, northern Finland. Mineral Petrol 42:39–55
Halkoaho TAA, Alapieti TT, Lahtinen JJ (1990b) The Ala-Penikka PGE reefs in the Penikat layered intrusion, northern Finland. Mineral Petrol 42:23–38
Hall AL (1932) The Bushveld igneous complex in the central Transvaal. Geol Soc S Afr Mem 28:544
Hamilton PJ (1977) Sr isotope and trace element studies of the Great Dyke and Bushveld mafic phase and their relation to early Proterozoic magma genesis in southern Africa. J Petrol 18:24–52
Hamlyn PR, Keays RR (1986) Sulfur saturation and second stage melts: application to the Bushveld platinum metal deposits. Econ Geol 81:1431–1445
Harmer RE (2004) The Volspruit PGE-Ni reef: platinum mineralization in the Lower Zone south of Mokopane (Potgietersrus), South Africa. Geoscience Africa, Johannesburg, Abstracts:256–257
Harmer RE, Armstrong RA (2000) Duration of Bushveld (sensu lato) magmatism: constraints from new SHRIMP zircon chronology. Abstract, Workshop on the Bushveld Complex, Gethlane Lodge, Burgersfort
Harmer RE, Sharpe MR (1985) Field relation and strontium isotope systematics of the marginal rocks of the eastern Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 80:813–837
Harmer RE, Auret JM, Eglington BM (1995) Lead isotope variations within the Bushveld complex, South Africa: a reconnaissance study. J Afr Earth Sci 21:595–606
Harney DMW, Merkle RKW, von Gruenewaldt G (1990) Platinum-group element behaviour in the lower part of the Upper Zone, eastern Bushveld Complex—implications for the formation of the Main Magnetite Layer. Econ Geol 85:1777–1789
Harper MP (2004) Platinum group element mineralization in “Ballrooms” of the J-M reef of the Stillwater Complex, Montana. MSc thesis, Brigham Young University: 54pp
Harris C, Chaumba JB (2001) Crustal contamination and fluid–rock interaction during the formation of the Platreef, northern limb of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. J Petrol 42:1321–1347
Harris C, Pronost JJM, Ashwal LD, Cawthorn RG (2004) Oxygen and hydrogen isotope stratigraphy of the Rustenburg layered suite, Bushveld Complex: constraints on crustal contamination. J Petrol 46:579–601
Hart SR, Kinloch ED (1989) Os isotope systematics in Witwatersrand and Bushveld ore deposits. Econ Geol 84:1651–1655
Hatton CJ, Schweitzer JK (1995) Evidence for synchronous extrusive and intrusive Bushvekld magmatism. J Afr Earth Sci 21:579–594
Hatton CJ, von Gruenewaldt G (1990) Early Precambrian layered intrusions: a review. Inst Geol Res Bushveld Complex Research Rep 83:53
He B, Xu Y-B, Huang X-L, Luo Z-Y, Shi Y-R, Yang Q-J, Yu S-Y (2007) Age and duration of the Emeishan flood volcanism, SW China: geochemistry and SHRIMP zircon U–Pb dating of silicic ignimbrites, post-volcanic Xuanwei Formation and clay tuff at the Chaotian section. Earth Planet Sci Lett 255:306–323
Heckroodt RO (1959) The geology around the dunite pipe on Driekop (Eastern Transvaal). Trans Geol Soc S Afr 62:59–73
Helz RT (1985) Compositions of fine grained mafic rocks from sills and dykes associated with the Stillwater Complex. In: Czamanske GK, Zientek ML (eds) The Stillwater Complex, Montana: geology and guide. Montana Bur Mines Geol Spec Pub 92:396pp
Herzberg C, Asimov PD, Arndt NT, Niu Y, Lesher CM, Fitton JG, Cheadle MJ, Saunders AD (2007) Temperatures in ambient mantle and plumes: constraints from basalts, picrites, and komatiites. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 8, Q02006, doi:10.1029/2006GC001390
Hiemstra SA (1986) The distribution of chalcophile and platinum-group elements in the UG2 chromitite layer of the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 81:1080–1086
Hirschmann MM, Renne PR, McBirney AR (1997) 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Skaergaard intrusion. Earth Planet Sci Lett 146:645–658
Holness MB, Stripp G, Humphreys CS, Veksler IV, Nielsen TFD, Tegner C (2011) Silicate liquid immiscibility within the crystal mush: late stage magmatic microstructures in the Skaergaard Intrusion, East Greenland. J Petrol 52:175–222
Holwell DA, McDonald I (2006) Petrology, geochemistry, and the mechanisms determining the distribution of platinum-group element and base metal sulfide mineralization in the Platreef at Overysel, northern Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Min Dep 41:575–598
Holwell DA, Armitage PEB, McDonald I (2005) Observations on the relationship between the Platreef and its hangingwall. Trans Instit Min Metal 114:199–207
Holwell DA, Boyce AJ, McDonald I (2007) Sulfur isotope variations within the Platreef Ni-Cu-PGE deposit: genetic implications for the origin of sulfide mineralization. Econ Geol 102:1091–1110
Holzer L, Barton JR, Paya BK, Kramers JD (1999) Tectonothermal history in the western part of the Limpopo Belt: test of the tectonic models and new perspectives. J Afr Earth Sci 28:383–402
Howell PD, van der Pluijm BA (1999) Structural sequences and style of subsidence in the Michigan basin. Geol Soc Am Bull 111:974–991
Hulbert LJ (1983) A petrological investigation of the Rustenburg layered suite and associated mineralization south of Potgietersrus. Ph.D. thesis, University of Pretoria, 501 pp
Hulbert LJ, von Gruenewaldt G (1982) Nickel, copper, and platinum mineralization in the Lower Zone of the Bushveld Complex, south of Potgietersrus. Econ Geol 77:1296–1306
Iljina MJ, Lee CA (2005) PGE deposits in the marginal series of layered intrusions. In: Mungall JE (ed) Exploration for platinum group element deposits. Mineralog Assoc Can Short Course Series 35: 75–96
Ireland KL (1986) The Winterveld Chrome Mine Limited, eastern Bushveld Complex, In: Anhaeusser CR, Maske S (eds) Mineral deposits of Southern Africa. Geol Soc S Afr Johannesburg 1183–1188
Irvine TN (1970) Crystallization sequences in the Muskox intrusion and other layered intrusions. 1. Olivine–pyroxene–plagioclase relations. 441–476. In: Visser DJL, von Gruenewaldt G (eds) Symposium on the Bushveld igneous complex and other layered intrusions. Geol Soc S Afr Spec Pub, 1
Irvine TN (1975) Crystallization sequences in the Muskox intrusion and other layered intrusions—II. Origin of chromitite layers and similar deposits of other magmatic ores. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 39:991–1020
Irvine TN (1980) Infiltration metasomatism, adcumulus growth, and double diffusive fractional crystallization in the Muskox intrusion and other layered intrusions. In: Hargaves RB (ed) Physics of magmatic processes. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp 325–383
Irvine TN (1986) Layering and related structures in the Duke Island and Skaergaard intrusions: similarities, differences and origins. In: Parson I (ed) Origins of igneous layering. D Reidel, Dordrecht, pp 185–246
Irvine TN, Keith DW, Todd SG (1983) The J-M platinum–palladium reef of the Stillwater Complex, Montana II: origin by double-diffusive convective magma mixing and implications for the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 78:1287–1334
Irvine TN, Andersen JCO, Brooks CK (1998) Included blocks (and blocks within blocks) in the Skaergaard intrusion: geological relations and the origins of rhythmic modally graded layers. Geol Soc Amer Bull 110:1398–1447
Jackson ED (1961) Primary textures and mineral associations in the ultramafic zone of the Stillwater Complex, Montana. US Geol Surv Prof Pap 358:1–106
Jakobsen JK, Veksler IV, Tegner C, Brooks CK (2005) Immiscible iron- and silica-rich melts in basalt petrogenesis documented in the Skaergaard intrusion. Geology 33:885–888
Kazanov OV, Kalinin A (2008) The structure and PGE mineralization of the east Pansky layered Massif. Strategic mineral resources of Lapland-base for the sustainable development of the North. Interreg-Tacis Project, Apatity, Russia, 57–68
Keays RR, Lightfoot PC, Hamlyn PR (2010) Sulphide saturation history of the Stillwater Complex, Montana: chemostratigraphic variation in platinum group elements. Abstr 11th Platinum Symposium, Sudbury, Canada
Keays RR, Lightfoot PC, Hamlyn PR (2011) Sulfide saturation history of the Stillwater Complex, Montana: chemostratigraphic variation in platinum group elements. Miner Deposita. doi:10.1007/s00126-011-0346-7
Kersey DG, Hsü KJ (1976) Energy relations and density current flows: an experimental investigation. Sedimentology 23:761–790
Kinloch ED (1982) Regional trends in the platinum-group mineralogy of the critical zone of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Econ Geol 77:1328–1347
Kinnaird JA, Hutchinson D, Schurmann L, Nex PAM, De Lange R (2005) Petrology and mineralization of the southern Platreef: northern limb of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Mineralium Deposita 40:576–597
Klemm DD, Henckel J, Dehm R, von Gruenewaldt G (1985) The geochemistry of titanomagnetite in magnetite layers and their host rocks of the eastern Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 80:1075–1088
Kruger FJ (1990) The stratigraphy of the Bushveld Complex: a reappraisal and relocation of the Main Zone boundaries. S Afr J Geol 93:376–381
Kruger FJ (1992) The origin of the Merensky cyclic unit: Sr isotopic and mineralogical evidence for an alternative orthomagmatic model. Austr J Earth Sci 39:255–261
Kruger FJ (1994) The Sr-isotopic stratigraphy of the western Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Geol 97:393–398
Kruger FJ, Marsh JS (1985) The mineralogy, petrology and origin of the Merensky cyclic unit in the western Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 80:958–974
Lambert DD, Simmons EC (1987) Magma evolution in the Stillwater Complex, Montana: I. Rare earth element evidence for the formation of the ultramafic series. American J Sci 287:1–32
Lambert DD, Simmons EC (1988) Magma evolution in the Stillwater Complex, Montana: II. Rare earth element evidence for the formation of the J-M reef. Econ Geol 83:1109–1126
Lambert DD, Walker RJ, Morgan JW, Shirey SB, Carlson RW, Zientek ML, Lipin BR, Koski MS, Cooper RL (1994) Re–Os and Sm–Nd isotope geochemistry of the Stillwater Complex, Montana: implications for the petrogenesis of the J-M reef. J Petrol 35:1717–1753
Lambert DD, Shirey SB, Bergman SC (1995) Proterozoic lithospheric mantle source for the Prairie Creek lamproites: Re–Os and Sm–Nd isotopic evidence. Geology 23:273–276
Latypov RM (2003) The origin of marginal compositional reversals in basic–ultrabasic sills and layered intrusions by Soret fractionation. J Petrol 44:1579–1618
Lee CA (1981) Post depositional structures in the Bushveld Complex mafic sequence. J Geol Soc 138:327–341
Lee CA (1983) Trace and platinum-group element geochemistry and the development of the Merensky Unit of the western Bushveld Complex. Min Deposita 18:173–190
Lee CA (1996) A review of mineralization in the Bushveld Complex and some other layered intrusions. In: Cawthorn RG (ed) Layered intrusions. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 103–145
Lee CA, Butcher AR (1990) Cyclicity in the Sr isotope stratigraphy through the Merensky and Bastard Reefs, Atok Section, eastern Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 85:877–883
Lee CA, Parry SJ (1988) Platinum-group element geochemistry of the lower and middle group chromitites of the eastern Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 83:1127–1139
Lee CA, Tredoux M (1986) Platinum-group element abundances in the lower and the lower critical zones of the eastern Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 81:1087–1095
Leeb-du Toit A (1986) The Impala Platinum Mines. In: Anhaeusser CR, Maske S (eds) Mineral deposits of Southern Africa. Geol Soc S Afr Johannesburg, 1091–1106.
Lesher CM, Burnham OM (2001) Multicomponent elemental and isotopic mixing in Ni–Cu–(PGE) ores at Kambalda, Western Australia. Can Mineralogist 39:421–446
Letts S, Torsvik TH, Webb S, Ashwal LD (2009) Palaeomagnetism of the 2054 Ga Bushveld Complex (South Africa): implications for emplacement and cooling. Geophys J Int 179:850–872
Li C, Ripley EM (2005) Empirical equations to predict the sulfide content of mafic magmas at sulfide saturation and applications to magmatic sulfide deposits. Mineralium Deposita 40:218–230
Li C, Ripley EM, Maier WD, Gomwe TE (2002) Olivine and sulfur isotopic compositions of the Uitkomst sulfide-bearing intrusion, South Africa: evidence for sulfur contamination and multiple magma emplacements. Chem Geol 188:149–159
Li C, Ripley EM, Oberthür T, Miller JD Jr, Joslin GD (2008) Textural, mineralogical and stable isotope studies of hydrothermal alteration in the main sulfide zone of the Great Dyke, Zimbabwe and the precious metals zone of the Sonju Lake Intrusion, Minnesota, USA. Mineral Dep 43:97–110
Liebenberg L (1970) The sulfides in the layered sequence of the Bushveld igneous complex. Geol Soc S Afr Spec Pub 1:108–208
Lipin BR (1993) Pressure increases, the formation of chromite seams, and the development of the ultramafic series in the Stillwater Complex, Montana. J Petrol 34:955–976
Locmelis M, Pearson NJ, Barnes SJ, Fiorentini ML (2011) Ruthenium in komatiitic chromite. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 75:3645–3661
London (2008) Pegmatites. Can Min Spec Pub 10:374
Lorand J-P, Gregoire M (2006) Petrogenesis of base metal sulphide assemblages of some peridotites from the Kaapvaal craton (South Africa). Contrib Mineral Petrol 151:521–538
Luguet A, Shirey SB, Lorand J-P, Horan MF, Carlson RW (2007) Residual platinum-group minerals from highly depleted harzburgites of the Lherz massif (France) and their role in HSE fractionation of the mantle. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 71:3082–3097
Mahoney JJ, Coffin MF (eds) (1997) Large igneous provinces: continental, oceanic and, planetary flood volcanism. AGU Geophysical Monograph, 100
Maier WD (2002) Concentrations of the PGE in the Platreef on the farm Townlands, northern Bushveld Complex. Abstr, 9th International Platinum Symposium, Billings, USA
Maier WD (2005) Platinum-group element (PGE) deposits and occurrences: mineralization styles, genetic concepts, and exploration criteria. J Afr Earth Sci 41:165–191
Maier WD, Barnes S-J (1998) Concentrations of rare earth elements in silicate rocks of the Lower, Critical and Main zones of the Bushveld Complex. Chem Geol 150:85–103
Maier WD, Barnes S-J (1999) Platinum-group elements in silicate rocks of the Lower, Critical, and Main zones at Union Section, western Bushveld Complex. J Petrol 40:1647–1671
Maier WD, Barnes S-J (2003) Platinum-group elements in the Boulder Bed, western Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Mineral Deposita 38:370–380
Maier WD, Barnes S-J (2004) Pt/Pd and Pd/Ir ratios in mantle-derived magmas: a possible role for mantle metasomatism. S Afr J Geol 107:333–340
Maier WD, Barnes S-J (2008) Platinum-group elements in the UG1 and UG2 chromitites and the Bastard reef at Impala platinum mine, western Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Geol 111:159–176
Maier WD, Barnes S-J (2010) The petrogenesis of PGE reefs in the Upper Main Zone of the northern lobe of the Bushveld Complex on the farm Moorddrift, South Africa. Econ Geol 105:841–854
Maier WD, Eales HV (1997) Correlation within the UG2–Merensky Reef interval of the Western Bushveld Complex, based on geochemical, mineralogical and petrological data. Geol Surv S Afr Bull 120:56
Maier WD, Groves DI (2011) Temporal and spatial controls on the formation of magmatic PGE and Ni–Cu deposits. Min Deposita 46:841–857
Maier WD, Teigler B (1995) A facies model for the Western Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 90:2343–2349
Maier WD, Prichard HM, Barnes S-J, Fisher PC (1999) Compositional variation of laurite at Union Section in the western Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Geol 102:286–292
Maier WD, Arndt NT, Curl EA (2000) Progressive crustal contamination of the Bushveld Complex: evidence from Nd isotopic analyses of the cumulate rocks. Contrib Mineral Petrol 140:316–327
Maier WD, Barnes S-J, van der Merwe MJ (2001) The concentrations of PGE in the Pyroxenite Marker, Bushveld Complex: implications for the formation of the Main Zone. S Afr J Geol 104:335–342
Maier WD, Barnes S-J, Gartz V, Andrews G (2003) Pt–Pd reefs in magnetitites of the Stella layered intrusion, South Africa: a world of new exploration opportunities for platinum-group elements. Geology 31:885–888
Maier WD, de Klerk L, Blaine J, Manyeruke T, Barnes S-J, Stevens MVA, Mavrogenes JA (2008a) Petrogenesis of contact-style PGE mineralization in the northern lobe of the Bushveld Complex: comparison of data from the farms Rooipoort, Townlands, Drenthe and Nonnenwerth. Mineral Deposita 43:255–280
Maier WD, Teigler B, Miller R (2008b) The Kunene anorthosite complex and its satellite intrusions. In: RMcG Miller (ed) The geology of Namibia. Geol Surv Namibia, 9–1 to 9–18
Maier WD, Barnes SJ, Campbell IH, Fiorentini ML, Peltonen P, Barnes S-J, Smithies RH (2009) Progressive mixing of meteoritic veneer into the early Earth’s deep mantle. Nature 460:620–623
Maier WD, Peltonen P, McDonald I, Barnes SJ, Barnes S-J, Hatton C, Viljoen F (2012a) The platinum-group element budget of the Kaapvaal and Karelian sub-continental lithospheric mantle: implications for mantle evolution. Chem Geol 302–303:119–135
Maier WD, Rasmussen B, Fletcher I, Yang S (2012b) Direct precipitation of Pt alloys from basaltic magma in the 2.77 Ga Monts de Cristal Complex, Gabon. Abstr, 12th Int Ni–Cu–PGE symposium, Guiyang
Manyeruke T, Maier WD, Barnes S-J (2005) Major and trace element geochemistry of the Platreef on the farm Townlands, northern Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Geol 108:379–394
Maré LP, Cole J (2006) The Trompsburg Complex, South Africa: a preliminary three dimensional model. J Afr Earth Sci 44:314–330
Marsh JS, Bowen MP, Rogers NW, Bowen TB (1992) Petrogenesis of Late Archean flood-type basic lavas from the Klipriviersberg group, Ventersdorp Supergroup, South Africa. J Petrol 33:817–847
Mathez EA, Mey JL (2005) Character of the UG2 chromitite and host rocks and petrogenesis of its pegmatoidal footwall, northeastern Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 100:1617–1630
Mathez EA, Waight TE (2003) Lead isotopic disequilibrium between sulfide and plagioclase in the Bushveld Complex and the chemical evolution of large layered intrusions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 67:1875–1888
McBirney A (1975) Differentiation of the skaergaard intrusion. Nature 253:691–694
McBirney AR, Hunter RH (1995) The cumulate paradigm reconsidered. J Geol 103:114–122
McBirney AR, Noyes RM (1979) Crystallization and layering of the Skaergaard intrusion. J Petrol 20:487–554
McCandless TE, Ruiz J (1991) Osmium isotopes and crustal sources for platinum-group mineralization in the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Geology 19:1225–1228
McCarthy TS, Cawthorn RG, Wright CJ, McIver JR (1985) Mineral layering in the Bushveld Complex: implications of Cr abundances in magnetite from closely spaced magnetite and intervening silicate rich layers. Econ Geol 80:1062–1074
McDonald I, Holwell DA (2011) Geology of the northern Bushveld Complex and the setting and genesis of the Platreef Ni–Cu–PGE deposit. In Li C, Ripley EM (eds) Magmatic Ni–Cu and PGE deposits: geology, geochemistry, and genesis. Rev Econ Geol 17:297–327
McDonald I, De Wit MJ, Smith CB, Bizzi LA, Viljoen KS (1995) The geochemistry of the platinum-group elements in Brazilian and southern African kimberlites. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 59:2883–2903
McDonald I, Ohnenstetter D, Rowe JP, Tredoux M, Pattrick RAD, Vaughan DJ (1999) Platinum precipitation in the Waterberg deposit, Naboomspruit, South Africa. S Afr J Geol 102:184–191
McDonald I, Holwell DA, Armitage PEB (2005) Geochemistry and mineralogy of the Platreef and critical zone of the northern lobe of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa: implications for Bushveld stratigraphy and the development of PGE mineralization. Miner Deposita 40:526–549
McInnes BIA, McBride JS, Evans NJ, Lambert DD, Andrew AS (1999) Osmium isotope constraints on metal recycling in subduction zones. Science 286:512–516
Merensky H (1926) Die neuentdeckten Platinfelder im mittleren Transvaal, und ihre wissenschaftliche Bedeutung. Berliner Zeitschr Deut Geol Gesell 78:298–314
Miller JD Jr, Andersen JCO (2002) Attributes of Skaergaard-type reefs. In: Boudreau A (ed) Extended abstracts. 9th Int Platinum Symposium, Billings, Montana, 305–308
Miller JD, Green JC, Severson MJ, Chandler VW, Hauck SA, Peterson DM, Wahl TE (2002) Geology and mineral potential of the Duluth Complex and related rocks of northeastern Minnesota. Minnesota Geol Surv Report 58:207 p
Mitchell AA (1986) The petrology, mineralogy and geochemistry of the Main Zone of the Bushveld Complex at Rustenburg Platinum Mine, Union Section. Ph.D. thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 157pp
Mitchell AA (1996) Compositional cyclicity in a pyroxenitic layer from the Main Zone of the western Bushveld Complex: evidence for repeated magma influx. Min Mag 60:149–161
Mitchell AA, Scoon RN (2007) The Merensky Reef at Winnaarshoek, eastern Bushveld Complex: a primary magmatic hypothesis based on a wide reef facies. Econ Geol 102:971–1009
Molyneux TG (1970) A geological investigation of the Bushveld Complex in Sekhukhuneland and part of the Steelpoort Valley, eastern Transvaal, with particular reference to the oxide minerals. D.Sc. thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria.
Molyneux TG (1974) A geological investigation of the Bushveld Complex in Sekhukuneland and part of the Steelpoort valley. Trans Geol Soc S Afr 77:329–338
Mondal SK, Mathez EA (2007) Origin of the UG2 chromitite layer, Bushveld Complex. J Petrol 48:495–510
Morse SA (1988) Motion of crystals, solute and heat in layered intrusions. Can Mineralogist 26:209–224
Mossom RJ (1986) The Atok Platinum Mine. In: Anhaeusser, C.R., Maske, S (eds) Mineral deposits of Southern Africa Geol Soc S Afr, Johannesburg 1143–1154
Mutanen T (1997) Geology and petrology of the Akanvaara and Koitelainen mafic layered intrusions and Keivitsa–Satovaara layered complex, northern Finland. Geol Surv Finl Bull 395:233
Mutanen T, Huhma H (2001) U–Pb geochronology of the Koitelainen, Akanvaara and Kevitsa layered intrusions and related rocks. In: Vaasjoki M (ed) Radiometric age determinations from Finnish Lapland and their bearing on the timing of Precambrian volcano-sedimentary sequences. Geol Surv Fin Spec Pap 33:229–246
Nabil H (2003) Genèse des depots de Fe–Ti–P associés aux intrusions litées (exemples: l’intrusion mafique de Sept-Iles, au Québec; Complexe de Duluth aux Etats Unis. Ph.D. thesis, Univ Quebec at Chicoutimi, 441 p
Naldrett AJ (2004) Our friend platinum. Geol Soc S Afr Bull 47–2:4–12
Naldrett AJ (2009) Fundamentals of magmatic sulfide deposits. In: Li C, Ripley EM (eds) New developments in magmatic Ni–Cu and PGE deposits. Geol Publ House, 1–26
Naldrett AJ (2010) Secular variation of magmatic sulfide deposits and their source magmas. Econ Geol 105:669–688
Naldrett AJ, Lehmann J (1988) Spinel non-stoichiometry as the explanation for Ni-, Cu-, and PGE-enriched sulphides in chromitites. In: Pritchard HM, Potts PJ, Bowles JFW, Cribb SJ (eds) Geo-Platinum 87. Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp 113–143
Naldrett AJ, von Gruenewaldt G (1989) Association of platinum-group elements with chromitite in layered intrusions and ophiolite complexes. Econ Geol 84:180–187
Naldrett AJ, Gasparrini EC, Barnes SJ, Von Gruenewaldt G, Sharpe MR (1986) The upper critical zone of the Bushveld Complex and the origin of Merensky-type ores. Econ Geol 81:1105–1117
Naldrett AJ, Kinnaird J, Wilson A, Yudovskaya M, McQuade S, Chunnett G, Stanley C (2009a) Chromite composition and PGE content of Bushveld chromitites: part 1—the lower and middle groups. Trans Inst Min Metall B118:131–161
Naldrett AJ, Wilson A, Kinnaird J, Chunnett G (2009b) PGE tenor and metal ratios within and below the Merensky Reef, Bushveld Complex: implications for its genesis. J Petrol 50:625–659
Naldrett AJ, Wilson A, Kinnaird J, Yudovskaya M, Chunnett G (2012) The origin of chromitites and related PGE mineralization in the Bushveld Complex: new mineralogical and petrological constraints. Min Deposita 47:209–232
Naslund HR (1983) The effect of oxygen fugacity on liquid immiscibility in iron-bearing silicate melts. Am J Sci 283:1034–1059
Naslund HR, McBirney AR (1996) Mechanisms of formation of igneous layering. In: Cawthorn RG (ed) Layered intrusions. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1–43
Nex PAM (2004) Formation of bifurcating chromitite layers of the UG1 in the Bushveld Igneous Complex, an analogy with sand volcanoes. J Geol Soc Lond 161:903–909
Nicholson DM, Mathez EA (1991) Petrogenesis of the Merensky Reef in the Rustenburg section of the Bushveld Complex. Contrib Mineral Petrol 107:293–309
O’Driscoll B, Emeleus CH, Donaldson CH, Daly JS (2010) Cr-spinel seam petrogenesis in the Rhum layered suite, NW Scotland: cumulate assimilation and in situ crystallization in a deforming crystal mush. J Petrol 51:1171–1201
Oberthür T (2002) Platinum-group element mineralization of the Great Dyke, Zimbabwe. In: Cabri LJ (ed) The geology, geochemistry, mineralogy and mineral beneficiation of platinum-group elements. Can Inst Min Metall Spec Vol 54:483–506
Olsson JR, Söderlund U, Hamilton MA, Klausen MB, Helffrich GR (2011) A late Archaean radiating dyke swarm as possible clue to the origin of the Bushveld Complex. Nat Geosci 4:865–869
Oosterhuis WR (1998) Andalusite, sillimanite and kyanite, 53–58. In: Wilson MGC, Anhaeusser CR (eds) The mineral resources of South Africa, handbook. Council for Geoscience, 740pp
Page NJ, von Gruenewaldt G, Haffty J, Aruscavage PJ (1982) Comparison of platinum, palladium, and rhodium distributions in some layered intrusions with special reference to the late differentiates (Upper Zone) of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Econ Geol 91:439–450
Pagé P, Barnes S-J, Bédard JH, Zientek ML (2012) In situ determination of Os, Ir, and Ru in chromites formed from komatiite, tholeiite and boninite magmas: implications for chromite control of Os, Ir and Ru during partial melting and crystal fractionation. Chemical Geology 302–303:3–15
Palme H, Jones A (2005) Solar system abundances of the elements. In: Holland HD, Turekian KK (eds) Meteorites, comets and planets. Treatise on geochemistry, vol 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 41–62
Palme H, O’Neill HStC (2004) Cosmochemical estimates of mantle composition. In: Carlson RW (ed) The mantle and core. In: Holland HD, Turekian KK (eds) Treatise on geochemistry, vol. 2. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 1–38
Paterson SR (2009) Magmatic tubes, pipes, troughs, diapirs, and plumes: late-stage convective instabilities resulting in compositional diversity and permeable networks in crystal-rich magmas of the Tuolumne batholith, Sierra Nevada, California. Geosphere 5:496–527
Pearson DG, Irvine GJ, Ionov DA, Boyd FR, Dreibus GE (2004) Re–Os isotope systematics and platinum-group element fractionation during mantle melt extraction: a study of massif and xenolith peridotite suites. Chem Geol 208:29–59
Penniston-Dorland SC, Wing BA, Nex PAM, Kinnaird JA, Farquhar J, Brown M, Sharman ER (2007) Multiple sulfur isotopes reveal a magmatic origin for the Platreef platinum group element deposit, Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Geology 36:979–982
Penniston-Dorland SC, Farquhar J, Polley GJ, Mathez EA, Kinnaird EA (2011) Can multiple S isotopes be used as a tracer for sub-continental lithospheric mantle in the Bushveld? Abstr. Goldschmidt Conference, Prague.
Philpotts AR (1967) Origin of certain iron–titanium oxide and apatite rocks. Econ Geol 62:303–315
Prendergast M, Wilson AH (1989) The Great Dyke of Zimbabwe II: mineralization and mineral deposits. In: Prendergast MD, Jones MJ (eds) Magmatic sulfides—the Zimbabwe volume. The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, pp 21–42
Prendergast M (1988) An investigation of the stratigraphy and petrology of the pyroxenite no 1 layer in the Wedza Subchamber of the Great Dyke, Zimbabwe, with special reference to the characteristic features and origin of the PGE bearing Main Sulfide Zone. Ph.D. thesis, University of Zimbabwe
Prendergast M (1991) The Wedza–Mimosa platinum deposit, Great Dyke, Zimbabwe: layering and stratiform PGE mineralization in a narrow mafic magma chamber. Geol Mag 128:235–249
Prendergast M, Keays RR (1989) Controls of platinum-group element mineralization and the origin of the PGE-rich main sulfide zone of the Great Dyke, Zimbabwe: implications for the genesis of, and the exploration for stratiform PGE mineralization in layered intrusions. In: Prendergast MD, Jones MJ (eds) Magmatic sulfides—the Zimbabwe volume. The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, pp 43–69
Prendergast M, Bennett M, Henicke G (1998) Platinum exploration in the Rincon del Tigre Complex, eastern Bolivia. Trans Inst Min Metall 107:B39–47
Prevec SA, Ashwal LD, Mkaza MS (2005) Mineral disequilibrium in the Merensky Reef, western Bushveld Complex, South Africa: new Sm–Nd isotope evidence. Contrib Mineral Petrol 149:306–315
Pronost JJM, Harris C, Pin C (2008) Relationship between footwall contamination, crustal contamination, and fluid–rock interaction in the Platreef, Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Mineral Deposita 43:825–848
Quadling K, Cawthorn RG (1994) The layered gabbronorite sequence, Main Zone, eastern Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Geol 97:442–454
Raedeke LD, Vian RW (1986) A three-dimensional view of mineralization in the Stillwater J-M reef. Econ Geol 81:1187–1195
Reid DL, Basson IJ (2002) Iron-rich ultramafic pegmatite replacement bodies within the Upper Critical Zone, Rustenburg Layered Suite, Northam Platinum mine, South Africa. Mineral Mag:895–914
Reisberg L, Tredoux M, Harris C, Coftier A, Chaumba J (2011) Re and Os distribution and Os isotope composition of the Platreef at the Sandsloot mine, Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Chem Geol 281:352–363
Reischmann T (1995) Precise U/Pb age determination with baddeleyite (ZrO2), a case study from the Phalaborwa igneous complex, South Africa. S Afr J Geol 98:1–4
Reynolds IM (1985) The nature and origin of titaniferous magnetite-rich layers in the Upper Zone of the Bushveld Complex: a review and synthesis. Econ Geol 80:1089–1108
Reynolds IM (1986) The mineralogy and ore petrology of the Bushveld titaniferous magnetite-rich layers. In: Anhaeusser CR, Maske S (eds) Mineral deposits of southern Africa. Geol Soc S Afr Johannesburg 2:1267–1286.
Richardson SH, Shirey SB (2008) Continental mantle signature of Bushveld magmas and coeval diamonds. Nature 453:910–913
Richter FM (1988) A major change in the thermal state of the Earth at the Archean–Proterozoic boundary: consequences for the nature and preservation of continental lithosphere. J Petrol Spec Lithosphere issue: 39–52
Robins B (1982) Finger structures in the Lille Kufjord layered intrusion, Finnmark, Northern Norway. Cont Min Petrol 81:290–295
Roedder E (1978) Silicate liquid immiscibility in magmas and in the system K2O-FeO-AI2O3-SiO2: an example of serendipity. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 42:1597–1617
Roelofse F (2010) Constraints on the magmatic evolution of the Lower Main Zone and Platreef on the northern limb of the Bushveld Complex as inferred from the Moordkopje drill core. Ph.D. thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 155pp
Sá HS, Barnes S-J, Prichard HM, Fisher PC (2005) The distribution of base metals and platinum-group elements in magnetitites and their host rocks in the Rio Jacaré intrusion, Northeastern Brazil. Econ Geol 100:333–348
SACS (South African Committee for Stratigraphy) (1980) Kent LE (compiler) Stratigraphy of South Africa. Geol Surv S Afr Pretoria, Handbook, 8, 690pp
Sattari P, Brennan JM, Horn I, McDonough WF (2002) Experimental constraints on the sulfide- and chromite–silicate melt partitioning behavior of rhenium and the platinum-group elements. Econ Geol 97:385–398
Savard D, Barnes S-J, Meisel T (2010) Comparison between nickel–sulfur fire assay Te co-precipitation and isotope dilution with high-pressure asher acid digestion for the determination of PGE Re and gold. Geostandards and Geoanalytical Res 34:281–291
Schiffries CM (1982) The petrogenesis of a platiniferous dunite pipe in the Bushveld Complex: infiltration metasomatism by a chloride solution. Econ Geol 77:1439–1453
Schiffries CM, Rye DM (1989) Stable isotope systematics of the Bushveld Complex: I. Constraints on hydrothermal processes in layered intrusions. Am J Sci 289:841–873
Schmidt ER (1952) The structure and composition of the Merensky Reef and associated rocks in the Rustenburg platinum mine. Trans Geol Soc S Afr 55:234–279
Schmitz MD, Bowring SA, de Wit MJ, Gartz V (2004) Subduction and terrane collision stabilize the western Kaapvaal craton tectosphere 2.9 billion years ago. Earth Planet Sci Let 222:363–376
Schönberg R, Kruger FJ, Nägler TF, Meisel T, Kramers JD (1999) PGE enrichment in chromitite layers and the Merensky Reef of the western Bushveld Complex; a Re–Os and Rb–Sr isotope study. Earth Planet Sci Lett 172:49–64
Schönberg R, Nägler TF, Gnos E, Kramers JD, Kamber BS (2003) The source of the Great Dyke, Zimbabwe, and its tectonic significance: evidence from Re–Os isotopes. J Geol 111:565–578
Schwellnus CM (1935) The nickel–copper occurrences in the Bushveld Igneous Complex, west of the Pilanesberg. Geol Surv S Afr Bull 5:36p
Scoates JS (2000) The plagioclase–magma density paradox re-examined and the crystallization of Proterozoic anorthosites. J Petrol 41:627–649
Scoates JS, Friedman RM (2008) Precise age of the platiniferous Merensky Reef, Bushveld Complex, South Africa, by the U–Pb zircon chemical abrasion ID-TIMS technique. Econ Geol 103:465–471
Scoates JS, Lindsley DH, Frost BR (2010) Magmatic and structural evolution of an anorthositic magma chamber: the Poe Mountain intrusion, Laramie Anorthosite Complex, Wyoming. Can Min 48:851–885
Scoates JS, Wall CJ, Friedman RM, Chamberlain KR (2011) Revisiting the age of the Merensky Reef, Bushveld Complex. Abstr, Goldschmidt Conference 2011
Scoates JS, Wall CJ, Friedman RM, Vantongeren JA, Mathez EA (2012) The age of the Bushveld Complex. Abstr, Goldschmidt Conference, Montreal, Canada
Scoon RN, Mitchell AA (1994) Discordant iron-rich ultramafic pegmatites in the Bushveld Complex and their relationship to iron-rich intercumulus and residual liquids. J Petrol 35:881–917
Scoon RN, Mitchell AA (2004) The platiniferous dunite pipes in the eastern limb of the Bushveld Complex: review and comparison with unmineralized discordant ultramafic bodies. S Afr J Geol 107:505–520
Scoon RN, Mitchell AA (2009) A multi-stage orthomagmatic and partial melting hypothesis for the Driekop Platiniferous Dunite Pipe, eastern limb of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. S Afr J Geol 112:163–186
Scoon RN, Teigler B (1994) Platinum-group element mineralization in the critical zone of the Western Bushveld Complex: I sulfide-poor chromitites below the UG2. Econ Geol 89:1094–1121
Seabrook CL, Cawthorn RG, Kruger FJ (2005) The Merensky reef, Bushveld Complex: mixing of minerals not mixing of magmas. Econ Geol 100:1191–1206
Sharpe MR (1978) “Cone-type” diabases from the eastern Transvaal—representatives of a quenched magma. Trans Geol Soc S Afr 81:373–378
Sharpe MR (1981) The chronology of magma influxes to the eastern compartment of the Bushveld Complex, as exemplified by its marginal border group. J Geol Soc Lond 138:307–326
Sharpe MR (1985) Strontium isotope evidence for preserved density stratification in the main zone of the Bushveld Complex. Nature 316:119–126
Sharpe MR, Hulbert LJ (1985) Ultramafic sills beneath the eastern Bushveld Complex: mobilized suspensions of early lower zone cumulates in a parental magma with boninitic affinities. Econ Geol 80:849–871
Sharpe MR, Irvine TN (1983) Mixing relations of two Bushveld chilled margin rocks and implications for the origin of chromitite. Carnegie Inst Geophys Lab Yearbook 82:295–300
Silver PG, Fouch MJ, Gao SS, Schmitz M, Kaapvaal Seismic Group (2004) Seismic anisotropy, mantle fabric, and the magmatic evolution of Precambrian southern Africa. S Afr J Geol 107:45–58
Simon NSC, Carlson RW, Pearson DG, Davies GR (2007) The origin and evolution of the Kaapvaal cratonic lithospheric mantle. J Petrol 48:589–625
Smith D (2007) Challenges of mining PGMs at depth. Geoforum, Johannesburg
Sparks RSJ, Huppert HE, Kerr RC, McKenzie DP, Tait SR (1985) Postcumulus processes in layered intrusions. Geol Mag 122:555–568
Stewart AD (1966) On certain slump structures in the Torridonian sandstones of Applecross. Geol Mag 100:205–218
Stewart BW, DePaolo DJ (1990) Isotopic studies of processes in mafic magma chambers: II. The Skaergaard intrusion, East Greenland. Contrib Mineral Petrol 104:125–141
Stone WE, Crocket JH, Fleet ME (1990) Partitioning of palladium, iridium, platinum and gold between sulfide liquid and basalt melt at 1200 °C. Geochim et Cosmochim Acta 54:2341–2344
Stumpfl EF, Rucklidge JC (1982) The platiniferous dunite pipes of the eastern Bushveld. Econ Geol 77:1419–1431
Tegner C, Wilson JR, Brooks CK (1993) Intraplutonic quench zones in the Kap Edvard Holm layered gabbro Complex, east Greenland. J Petrol 34:681–710
Tegner C, Cawthorn RG, Kruger FJ (2006) Cyclicity in the main and upper zones of the Bushveld complex, South Africa: crystallization from a zoned magma sheet. J Petrol 47:2257–2279
Tegner C, Thy P, Holness MB, Jakobsen JK, Lesher CE (2009) Differentiation and compaction in the Skaergaard intrusion. J Petrol 50:813–840
Teigler B (1990a) Mineralogy, petrology and geochemistry of the Lower and Lower Critical Zones, northwestern Bushveld Complex. Ph.D. thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown
Teigler B (1990b) Platinum-group element distribution in the lower and middle group chromitites in the Western Bushveld Complex. Mineral Petrol 42:165–179
Teigler B, Eales HV (1996) The lower and critical zones of the western limb of the Bushveld Complex, as indicated by the Nooitgedacht boreholes. Geol Surv S Afr Bull 111:126
Teigler B, Eales HV, Scoon RN (1992) The cumulate succession in the critical zone of the Rustenburg layered suite at Brits, western Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Geol 95:17–28
Tollari N, Toplis MJ, Barnes S-J (2006) Predicting phosphate saturation in silicate magmas: an experimental study of the effects of melt composition and temperature. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 70:1518–1536
Tollari N, Baker D, Barnes S-J (2008a) Experimental effects of pressure and fluorine on apatite saturation in mafic magmas, with reference to layered intrusions and massif anorthosites. Contrib Mineral Petrol 156:161–175
Tollari N, Barnes S-J, Nabil H, Cox RA (2008b) Trace elements concentrations in apatites from the intrusive suite of Sept-Îles, Canada—implications for the genesis of nelsonites. Chem Geol 252:180–190
Toplis MJ, Carroll MR (1995) An experimental-study of the influence of oxygen fugacity on Fe–Ti oxide stability, phase-relations, and mineral–melt equilibria in ferro-basaltic systems. J Petrol 36:1137–1170
Toplis MJ, Carroll MR (1996) Differentiation of ferro-basaltic magmas under conditions open and closed to oxygen: implications for the Skaergaard intrusion and other natural systems. J Petrol 37:837–858
Toplis MJ, Corgne A (2002) An experimental study of element partitioning between magnetite, clinopyroxene and iron-bearing silicate liquids with particular emphasis on vanadium. Cont Min Petrol 144:22–37
Ulmer GC (1969) Experimental investigation of chromite spinels. Econ Geol Monogr 4:114–131
Van der Merwe J, Cawthorn RG (2005) Structures at the base of the upper group 2 chromitite layer, Bushveld Complex, South Africa, on Karee Mine (Lonmin Platinum). Lithos 83:214–228
Van Deventer JL, Eriksson PG, Snyman CP (1986) The Thabazimbi iron ore deposits, northwestern Transvaal. In: Anhaeusser CR, Maske S (eds) Mineral deposits of Southern Africa Geol Soc S Afr, Johannesburg 923–930
Vermaak CF (1976a) The Ni pipes of Vlakfontein and vicinity, western Transvaal. Econ Geol 71:261–286
Vermaak CF (1976b) The Merensky Reef—thoughts on its environment and genesis. Econ Geol 71:1270–1298
Vermaak CF, von Gruenewaldt G (1986) Introduction to the Bushveld Complex. In: Anhaeusser CR, Maske S (eds) Mineral deposits of Southern Africa. Geol Soc S Afr, Johannesburg 1021–1029
Viljoen MJ (1999) The nature and origin of the Merensky Reef of the western Bushveld Complex based on geological facies and geophysical data. S Afr J Geol 102:221–239
Viljoen MJ, Hieber R (1986) The Rustenburg section of Rustenburg Platinum Mines Limited, with reference to the Merensky Reef. In: Anhaeusser CR, Maske S (eds) Mineral deposits of Southern Africa. Geol Soc S Afr, Johannesburg 1117–1134
Viljoen MJ, Schürmann LW (1998) Platinum group metals. In: Wilson MGC, Anhaeusser CR (eds) The mineral resources of South Africa. Council for Geoscience, Pretoria, pp 532–568
Viljoen MJ, Scoon RN (1985) The distribution and main geologic features of discordant bodies of Fe rich ultramafic pegmatite in the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 80:1109–1128
Viljoen MJ, de Klerk WJ, Coetzer PM, Hatch NP, Kinloch E, Peyerl W (1986a) The Union section of Rustenburg Platinum Mines Ltd with reference to the Merensky Reef. In: Anhaeusser CR, Maske S (eds) Mineral deposits of Southern Africa. Geol Soc S Afr, Johannesburg 1061–1090.
Viljoen MJ, Theron J, Underwood B, Walters BM, Weaver J, Peyerl W (1986b) The Amandelbult section of Rustenburg Platinum Mines Limited, with reference to the Merensky Reef. In: Anhaeusser CR, Maske S (eds) Mineral deposits of Southern Africa. Geol Soc S Afr, Johannesburg 1041–1060
Viring RG, Cowell MW (1999) The Merensky Reef on Northam Platinum Limited. S Afr J Geol 102:192–208
Von Gruenewaldt G (1971) A petrographical and mineralogical investigation of the rocks of the Bushveld igneous complex in the Tauteshoogte–Roossenekal area of the eastern Transvaal. Ph.D. thesis, University of Pretoria, 228pp
Von Gruenewaldt G (1973) The main and upper zones of the Bushveld Complex in the Roossenekal area, eastern Transvaal. Trans Geol Soc S Afr 76:207–227
Von Gruenewaldt G (1976) Sulfides in the upper zone of the eastern Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 71:1324–1336
Von Gruenewaldt G (1979) A review of some recent concepts of the Bushveld Complex, with particular reference to sulfide mineralization. Can Mineralogist 17:233–256
Von Gruenewaldt G, Klemm DD, Henckel J, Dehm RM (1985) Exsolution features in titanomagnetites from massive magnetite layers and their host rocks in the Upper Zone, eastern Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 80:1049–1061
Von Gruenewaldt G, Hatton CJ, Merkle RKW, Gain SB (1986) Platinum-group element–chromitite associations in the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 81:1067–1079
Voordouw R, Gutzmer J, Beukes NJ (2009a) Intrusive origin for upper group (UG1, UG2) stratiform chromitite seams in the Dwars River area, Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Mineral Petrol 97:75–94
Voordouw R, Gutzmer J, Beukes NJ (2009b) Zoning of platinum-group mineral assemblages in the UG2 chromitite determined through in situ SEM-EDS based image analysis. Mineral Dep 45:147–159
Vuollo J, Huhma H (2005) Proterozoic mafic dykes in NE Finland. In: Lehtinen M, Nurmi PA, Rämö OT (eds) Precambrian geology of Finland, key to the evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 195–236
Wager LR (1963) The mechanism of adcumulus growth in the layered series of the Skaergard intrusion. Min Soc Amer Spec Pap 1:1–9
Wager LR, Brown GM (1964) Layered igneous rocks. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, p 588
Wagner PA (1929) The platinum deposits of the Bushveld Complex. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, p 588
Wallmach T, Hatton CJ, Droop GTR (1989) Extreme facies of contact metamorphism developed in calc-silicate xenoliths in the eastern Bushveld Complex. Can Mineral 27:509–523
Walraven F (1997) Geochronology of the Rooiberg Group, Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa. University of Witwatersrand. Econ Geol Res Unit Info Circular 316:21
Walraven F, Hattingh E (1993) Geochronology of the Nebo granite, Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Geol 96:31–41
Walraven F, Frick C, Lubala RT (1992) Pb-isotope geochronology of the Schiel Complex, Northern Transvaal, South Africa. J Afr E Sci 15:103–110
Webb SJ, Cawthorn RG, Nguuri T, James D (2003) Gravity modeling of Bushveld Complex connectivity supported by Southern African Seismic experiment results. S Afr J Geol 107:207–218
Webb SJ, Ashwal LD, Cawthorn RG (2011) Continuity between eastern and western Bushveld Complex, confirmed by xenoliths from kimberlite. Contrib Mineral Petrol 162:101–107
White JA (1994) The Potgietersrus project geology and exploration history. Proceedings of the 15th CMMI Congress. S Afr Inst Min Metall 173–182
Willemse J (1969) The vanadiferous magnetic iron ore of the Bushveld Igneous Complex. Econ Geol Monogr 4:137–208
Willmore CG, Boudreau AE, Kruger FJ (2000) The halogen geochemistry of the Bushveld Complex, Republic of South Africa: implications for chalcophile element distribution in the lower and critical zones. J Petrol 41:1517–1539
Wilson AH (2012) A chill sequence to the Bushveld Complex: insight into the first stage of emplacement and implications for the parental magmas. J Petrol 53:1123–1168
Wilson MGC, Anhaeusser CR (1998) The mineral resources of South Africa. Council for Geoscience, Handbook 16, 740pp
Wilson AH, Chunnett G (2006) Trace element and platinum group element distributions and the genesis of the Merensky Reef, Western Bushveld Complex, South Africa. J Petrol 47:2369–2403
Wilson AH, Chunnett G (2010) New insight into the stratigraphy, emplacement and evolution of the basal ultramafic succession in the eastern Bushveld Complex, South Africa, Abstr. 11th Plat Symposium, Sudbury
Wilson AH, Tredoux M (1990) Lateral and vertical distribution of platinum-group elements and petrogenetic controls on the sulfide mineralization in the P1 pyroxenite layer of the Darwendale subchamber of the Great Dyke, Zimbabwe. Econ Geol 85: 556–584
Wilson JR, Sorensen HS (1996) The Fongen–Hyllingen layered intrusive complex, Norway. In: Cawthorn RG (ed) Layered intrusions. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 303–330
Wilson JR, Cawthorn RG, Kruger FJ, Grundvig S (1994) Intrusive origin for the uncomformable upper zone in the northern gap, western Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Geol 97:462–472
www.petmin.co.za (2010) Petmin annual review. Director’s review of operations—Veremo
Yaxley GM, Berry AJ, Kamenetsky VS, Woodland AB, Paterson D, De Jong MD, Howard DL (2011) Redox profile through the Siberian craton: Fe K-edge XANES determination of Fe3+/Fe2+ in garnet from peridotite xenoliths of the Udachnaya kimberlite. Abstr. Goldschmidt Conference, Prague
Yudovskaya M, Kinnaird JA (2010) Chromite in the Platreef (Bushveld Complex, South Africa): occurrence and evolution of its chemical composition. Mineral Deposita 45:369–391
Yudovskaya M, Kinnaird JA, Naldrett AJ, Mokhov A, Kuznetsova M, McDonald I (2010) Facies variability of PGE mineralization in Platreef chromitites (abstract). Ontario Geological Survey Miscellaneous Release Data-269
Yudovskaya M, Kinnaird JA, Sobolev A, Kuzmin D, Wilson A (2012) Petrogenesis of the Lower Zone cumulates beneath the Platreef and their correlation with recognised occurrences in the Bushveld Complex. Ext Abstr, 12th Int Ni–Cu–PGE symposium. Guiyang
Zhou M-F, Robinson PT, Lesher CM, Keays RR, Zhang C-J, Malpas J (2005) Geochemistry, petrogenesis and metallogenesis of the Panzhihua gabbroic layered intrusion and associated Fe–Ti–V oxide deposits, Sichuan Province, SW China. J Petrol 46:2253–2280
Zientek ML, Foose MP, Mei L (1986) Palladium, platinum and rhodium contents of rocks near the lower margin of the Stillwater Complex, Montana. Econ Geol 81:1169–1178
Zientek ML, Cooper RW, Corson SR, Geraghty EP (2002) Platinum-group element mineralization in the Stillwater Complex, Montana. In Cabri LJ (ed) The geology, geochemistry, mineralogy and mineral beneficiation of platinum-group elements. Can Inst Min Metall Spec Vol 54:459–481
Acknowledgments
The present ideas developed over the course of more than two decades, due in large part to discussions with numerous collegues and friends, beginning with WDM’s Ph.D. supervisor Hugh Eales at Rhodes University, Ph.D. co-students Billy de Klerk and Bernd Teigler, and later our collegues Sybrand de Waal, Chusi Li, Steve Barnes, Rodger Scoon, Tony Naldrett, Martin Sharpe, Thomas Oberthür, Eero Hanski, Tapio Halkoaho, Ed Ripley, Belinda Godel, “Budgie” Carr, Iain McDonald, Nick Arndt, Hazel Prichard, Jim Mungall, Alan Wilson, Grant Cawthorn, Mike Lesher and Ed Mathez. Many of them do not share the present interpretations but were always willing to engage in, sometimes animated, debate. We are also grateful to the mining companies who provided access to their properties and data (notably JCI, Impala Platinum, Anglo Platinum, Lonmin, Rand Mines, Anglovaal, Caledonia Mining, Pan Palladium, Anooraq Resources) and to the funding agencies that provided research funding over the years, namely, the Foundation for Research Development of South Africa, the National Research Foundation of South Africa, the National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and the Australian Research Council. Thorough reviews of J Scoates, AJ Naldrett and M Lesher led to significant improvement of the manuscript and are greatly appreciated.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Editorial handling: C.M. Lesher
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
ESM 1
(XLS 161 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Maier, W.D., Barnes, SJ. & Groves, D.I. The Bushveld Complex, South Africa: formation of platinum–palladium, chrome- and vanadium-rich layers via hydrodynamic sorting of a mobilized cumulate slurry in a large, relatively slowly cooling, subsiding magma chamber. Miner Deposita 48, 1–56 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-012-0436-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-012-0436-1