Abstract
The present study aims to elucidate the intraseasonal oscillations (ISO) of atmospheric convection and air–sea fluxes over the Indian region during summer monsoon season. To accomplish this, the study employs the extended empirical orthogonal function-based bimodal ISO index developed by Kikuchi et al. [Clim Dyn 38(9–10):1989–2000, 2012]. The propagation of deep convective anomalies and air–sea fluxes are explored during the different phases (P1–P8) of the bimodal index. This is achieved by examining the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite rainfall, outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR), sea surface temperatures (SST), downward shortwave radiation (DSR) and reanalysis products of 850-hPa winds, potential vorticity and latent heat fluxes (LHFs). Composite analysis of the anomalies depicts the strong (weak) northward (eastward) propagation of convective anomalies over the Indian region (equatorial Indian Ocean). Over the Indian region, active (suppressed or weak) convection is evident during the phases of P4 and P5 (P1, P2 and P7, P8). Enhanced deep convection is lead by a phase of 850-hPa westerly winds and negative SST anomalies. Signatures of ISO during different phases are examined from Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monson Analysis and Prediction (RAMA) buoy observations over the Bay of Bengal. Rainfall, SST and LHF anomalies from RAMA buoy measurements are in concurrence with the spatial composites of bimodal ISO phases. Plausible drivers for the variability of intraseasonal convection and air–sea fluxes were reviewed using published observational and modelling studies. Findings from the present study advocate the applicability of Kikuchi bimodal index [Clim Dyn 38(9–10):1989–2000, 2012] over the Indian region and have practical application for the validation of ocean-atmospheric coupled models.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abhik, S., Halder, M., Mukhopadhyay, P., Jiang, X., & Goswami, B. N. (2013). A possible new mechanism for northward propagation of boreal summer intraseasonal oscillations based on TRMM and MERRA reanalysis. Climate Dynamics, 40(7–8), 1611–1624.
Achuthavarier, D., & Krishnamurthy, V. (2011). Role of Indian and Pacific SST in Indian summer monsoon intraseasonal variability. Journal of Climate, 24(12), 2915–2930.
Anandh, P. C., Vissa, N. K., & Broderick, C. (2018). Role of MJO in modulating rainfall characteristics observed over India in all seasons utilizing TRMM. International Journal of Climatology, 38(5), 2352–2373.
Annamalai, H., & Slingo, J. M. (2001). Active/break cycles: Diagnosis of the intraseasonal variability of the Asian summer monsoon. Climate Dynamics, 18(1–2), 85–102.
Araligidad, N. M., & Maloney, E. D. (2008). Wind-driven latent heat flux and the intraseasonal oscillation. Geophysical Research Letters. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL032746.
Bhatla, R., Singh, M., & Pattanaik, D. R. (2017). Impact of Madden-Julian oscillation on onset of summer monsoon over India. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 128(1–2), 381–391.
Bonell, M., & Bruijnzeel, L. A. (Eds.). (2005). Forests, water and people in the humid tropics: Past, present and future hydrological research for integrated land and water management. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Emanuel, K. A. (1987). An air–sea interaction model of intraseasonal oscillations in the tropics. Journal of the atmospheric sciences, 44(16), 2324–2340.
Fairall, C. W., Bradley, E. F., Hare, J. E., Grachev, A. A., & Edson, J. B. (2003). Bulk parameterization of air–sea fluxes: Updates and verification for the COARE algorithm. Journal of Climate, 16(4), 571–591.
Francis, P. A., & Gadgil, S. (2009). The aberrant behaviour of the Indian monsoon in June 2009. Current Science, 97(9), 1291–1295.
Fu, X., & Wang, B. (2004). The boreal-summer intraseasonal oscillations simulated in a hybrid coupled atmosphere-ocean model. Monthly Weather Review, 132(11), 2628–2649.
Fu, X., Wang, B., Li, T., & McCreary, J. P. (2003). Coupling between northward-propagating, intraseasonal oscillations and sea surface temperature in the Indian Ocean. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 60(15), 1733–1753.
Gadgil, S., Vinayachandran, P. N., Francis, P. A., & Gadgil, S. (2004). Extremes of the Indian summer monsoon rainfall, ENSO and equatorial Indian Ocean oscillation. Geophysical Research Letters. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL019733.
Gibson, J. K., Kallberg, P., Uppala, S., Hernandez, A., Nomura, A., & Serrano, E. (1997). ERA description. ECMWF Re-Analysis Project Report Series 1, ECMWF. Reading, United Kingdom, p. 77.
Goswami, B. N., Ajayamohan, R. S., Xavier, P. K., & Sengupta, D. (2003). Clustering of synoptic activity by Indian summer monsoon intraseasonal oscillations. Geophysical Research Letters. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL016734.
Goswami, B. N., & Mohan, R. A. (2001). Intraseasonal oscillations and interannual variability of the Indian summer monsoon. Journal of Climate, 14(6), 1180–1198.
Goswami, B. N., Shukla, J., Schneider, E. K., & Sud, Y. C. (1984). Study of the dynamics of the intertropical convergence zone with a symmetric version of the GLAS climate model. Journal of the atmospheric sciences, 41(1), 5–19.
Goswami, B. N., Wu, G., & Yasunari, T. (2006). The annual cycle, intraseasonal oscillations, and roadblock to seasonal predictability of the Asian summer monsoon. Journal of Climate, 19(20), 5078–5099.
Govardhan, D., Rao, V. B., & Ashok, K. (2017). Understanding the revival of the Indian summer monsoon after breaks. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 74(5), 1417–1429.
Hazra, A., & Krishnamurthy, V. (2018). Seasonality and mechanisms of tropical intraseasonal oscillations. Climate Dynamics, 50(1–2), 179–199.
Hendon, H. H. (2005). Air sea interaction. In W. K. M. Lau & D. E. Waliser (Eds.), Intraseasonal variability in the atmosphere-ocean climate system (p. 436). Chichester: Praxis Publishing.
Hendon, H. H., & Glick, J. (1997). Intraseasonal air–sea interaction in the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. Journal of Climate, 10(4), 647–661.
Hoskins, B. J., & Rodwell, M. J. (1995). A model of the Asian summer monsoon. Part I: The global scale. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 52(9), 1329–1340.
Hu, W., Duan, A., & He, B. (2017). Evaluation of intra-seasonal oscillation simulations in IPCC AR5 coupled GCMs associated with the Asian summer monsoon. International Journal of Climatology, 37, 476–496.
Hu, W., Duan, A., & Wu, G. (2015). Impact of subdaily air–sea interaction on simulating intraseasonal oscillations over the tropical Asian monsoon region. Journal of Climate, 28(3), 1057–1073.
Jiang, X., Li, T., & Wang, B. (2004). Structures and mechanisms of the northward propagating boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation. Journal of Climate, 17(5), 1022–1039.
Jones, C., Waliser, D. E., & Gautier, C. (1998). The influence of the Madden–Julian oscillation on ocean surface heat fluxes and sea surface temperature. Journal of Climate, 11(5), 1057–1072.
Joseph, P. V., & Sijikumar, S. (2004). Intraseasonal variability of the low-level jet stream of the Asian summer monsoon. Journal of Climate, 17(7), 1449–1458.
Joseph, S., Sahai, A. K., & Goswami, B. N. (2010). Boreal summer intraseasonal oscillations and seasonal Indian monsoon prediction in DEMETER coupled models. Climate Dynamics, 35(4), 651–667.
Kalnay, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D., Gandin, L., et al. (1996). The NCEP/NCAR 40-year reanalysis project. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77(3), 437–471.
Karmakar, N., Chakraborty, A., & Nanjundiah, R. S. (2017). Space-Time Evolution of the Low-and High-Frequency Intraseasonal Modes of the Indian Summer Monsoon. Monthly Weather Review, 145(2), 413–435.
Karmakar, N., & Krishnamurti, T. N. (2018). Characteristics of northward propagating intraseasonal oscillation in the Indian summer monsoon. Climate Dynamics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4268-2.
Kemball-Cook, S., & Wang, B. (2001). Equatorial waves and air–sea interaction in the boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation. Journal of Climate, 14(13), 2923–2942.
Kikuchi, K., Wang, B., & Kajikawa, Y. (2012). Bimodal representation of the tropical intraseasonal oscillation. Climate Dynamics, 38(9–10), 1989–2000.
Krishnamurthy, V. (2018). Intraseasonal oscillations in East Asian and South Asian monsoons. Climate Dynamics, 51(11–12), 4185–4205.
Krishnamurthy, V., & Shukla, J. (2000). Intraseasonal and interannual variability of rainfall over India. Journal of Climate, 13(24), 4366–4377.
Krishnamurthy, V., & Shukla, J. (2007). Intraseasonal and seasonally persisting patterns of Indian monsoon rainfall. Journal of Climate, 20(1), 3–20.
Krishnamurti, T. N., Oosterhof, D. K., & Mehta, A. V. (1988). Air–sea interaction on the time scale of 30 to 50 days. Journal of the atmospheric sciences, 45(8), 1304–1322.
Krishnamurti, T. N., Stefanova, L., & Misra, V. (2013). Scale interactions. In: Tropical meteorology (pp. 169–196). Springer, New York, NY.
Krishnan, R., & Venkatesan, C. (1997). Mechanisms of low frequency intraseasonal oscillations of the Indian summer monsoon. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 62(1–2), 101–128.
Lau, K. M., & Peng, L. (1987). Origin of low-frequency (intraseasonal) oscillations in the tropical atmosphere. Part I: basic theory. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 44(6), 950–972.
Lau, K. M., & Sui, C. H. (1997). Mechanisms of short-term sea surface temperature regulation: Observations during TOGA COARE. Journal of Climate, 10(3), 465–472.
Lawrence, D. M., & Webster, P. J. (2002). The boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation: Relationship between northward and eastward movement of convection. Journal of the atmospheric sciences, 59(9), 1593–1606.
Lee, J. Y., Wang, B., Wheeler, M. C., Fu, X., Waliser, D. E., & Kang, I. S. (2013). Real-time multivariate indices for the boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation over the Asian summer monsoon region. Climate Dynamics, 40(1–2), 493–509.
Li, K., Li, Z., Yang, Y., Xiang, B., Liu, Y., & Yu, W. (2016). Strong modulations on the Bay of Bengal monsoon onset vortex by the first northward-propagating intra-seasonal oscillation. Climate Dynamics, 47(1–2), 107–115.
Madden, R. A., & Julian, P. R. (1971). Detection of a 40–50 day oscillation in the zonal wind in the tropical Pacific. Journal of the atmospheric sciences, 28(5), 702–708.
Madden, R. A., & Julian, P. R. (1972). Description of global-scale circulation cells in the tropics with a 40–50 day period. Journal of the atmospheric sciences, 29(6), 1109–1123.
Madden, R. A., & Julian, P. R. (1994). Observations of the 40–50-day tropical oscillation—a review. Monthly Weather Review, 122(5), 814–837.
Majda, A. J., & Biello, J. A. (2004). A multiscale model for tropical intraseasonal oscillations. Proceedings of the National academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(14), 4736–4741.
Maloney, E. D., & Hartmann, D. L. (1998). Frictional moisture convergence in a composite life cycle of the Madden–Julian oscillation. Journal of Climate, 11(9), 2387–2403.
McPhaden, M. J., Meyers, G., Ando, K., Masumoto, Y., Murty, V. S. N., Ravichandran, M., et al. (2009). RAMA: the research moored array for African–Asian–Australian monsoon analysis and prediction. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 90(4), 459–480.
Moncrieff, M. W., Waliser, D. E., Miller, M. J., Shapiro, M. A., Asrar, G. R., & Caughey, J. (2012). Multiscale convective organization and the YOTC virtual global field campaign. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 93(8), 1171–1187.
Pai, D. S., Bhate, J., Sreejith, O. P., & Hatwar, H. R. (2011). Impact of MJO on the intraseasonal variation of summer monsoon rainfall over India. Climate Dynamics, 36(1–2):41–55.
Parekh, A., Raju, A., Chowdary, J. S., & Gnanaseelan, C. (2017). Impact of satellite data assimilation on the predictability of monsoon intraseasonal oscillations in a regional model. Remote Sensing Letters, 8(7), 686–695.
Pathak, A., Ghosh, S., Kumar, P., & Murtugudde, R. (2017). Role of oceanic and terrestrial atmospheric moisture sources in intraseasonal variability of Indian summer monsoon rainfall. Scientific reports, 7(1), 12729.
Rai, P., Joshi, M., Dimri, A. P., & Turner, A. G. (2017). The role of potential vorticity anomalies in the Somali Jet on Indian Summer Monsoon Intraseasonal Variability. Climate Dynamics, 50, 1–21.
Rajeevan, M., Gadgil, S., & Bhate, J. (2010). Active and break spells of the Indian summer monsoon. Journal of Earth System Science, 119(3), 229–247.
Raju, A., Parekh, A., Chowdary, J. S., & Gnanaseelan, C. (2015). Assessment of the Indian summer monsoon in the WRF regional climate model. Climate Dynamics, 44(11–12), 3077–3100.
Ramamurthy, K. (1969). Some aspects of the ‘Break’in the Indian southwest monsoon during July and August FMU Rep. No. IV-1813, January.
Raymond, D. J., & Fuchs, Ž. (2009). Moisture modes and the Madden–Julian oscillation. Journal of Climate, 22(11), 3031–3046.
Rienecker, M. M., Suarez, M. J., Gelaro, R., Todling, R., Bacmeister, J., Liu, E., et al. (2011). MERRA: NASA’s modern-era retrospective analysis for research and applications. Journal of Climate, 24(14), 3624–3648.
Roxy, M., & Tanimoto, Y. (2007). Role of SST over the Indian Ocean in influencing the intraseasonal variability of the Indian summer monsoon. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan Ser II, 85(3), 349–358.
Roxy, M., Tanimoto, Y., Preethi, B., Terray, P., & Krishnan, R. (2013). Intraseasonal SST-precipitation relationship and its spatial variability over the tropical summer monsoon region. Climate Dynamics, 41(1), 45–61.
Sengupta, D., Goswami, B. N., & Senan, R. (2001). Coherent intraseasonal oscillations of ocean and atmosphere during the Asian summer monsoon. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(21), 4127–4130.
Sengupta, D., & Ravichandran, M. (2001). Oscillations of Bay of Bengal sea surface temperature during the 1998 summer monsoon. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(10), 2033–2036.
Seo, K. H., & Song, E. J. (2012). Initiation of boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation: Dynamic contribution by potential vorticity. Monthly Weather Review, 140(6), 1748–1760.
Shinoda, T., Hendon, H. H., & Glick, J. (1998). Intraseasonal variability of surface fluxes and sea surface temperature in the tropical western Pacific and Indian Oceans. Journal of Climate, 11(7), 1685–1702.
Singh, C., & Dasgupta, P. (2017). Unraveling the spatio-temporal structure of the atmospheric and oceanic intra-seasonal oscillations during the contrasting monsoon seasons. Atmospheric Research, 192, 48–57.
Sobel, A. H., Maloney, E. D., Bellon, G., & Frierson, D. M. (2008). The role of surface heat fluxes in tropical intraseasonal oscillations. Nature Geoscience, 1(10), 653.
Sobel, A. H., Maloney, E. D., Bellon, G., & Frierson, D. M. (2009). Surface fluxes and tropical intraseasonal variability: A reassessment. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems. https://doi.org/10.3894/JAMES.2010.2.2.
Sperber, K. R., & Annamalai, H. (2008). Coupled model simulations of boreal summer intraseasonal (30–50 day) variability, Part 1: Systematic errors and caution on use of metrics. Climate Dynamics, 31(2–3), 345–372.
Srinivas, G., Chowdary, J. S., Kosaka, Y., Gnanaseelan, C., Parekh, A., & Prasad, K. V. S. R. (2018). Influence of the Pacific-Japan Pattern on Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall. Journal of Climate, 31(10), 3943–3958.
Tawde, S. A., & Singh, C. (2015). Investigation of orographic features influencing spatial distribution of rainfall over the Western Ghats of India using satellite data. International Journal of Climatology, 35(9), 2280–2293.
Vecchi, G. A., & Harrison, D. E. (2002). Monsoon breaks and subseasonal sea surface temperature variability in the Bay of Bengal. Journal of Climate, 15(12), 1485–1493.
Vialard, J., Jayakumar, A., Gnanaseelan, C., Lengaigne, M., Sengupta, D., & Goswami, B. N. (2012). Processes of 30–90 days sea surface temperature variability in the northern Indian Ocean during boreal summer. Climate Dynamics, 38(9–10), 1901–1916.
Vissa, N. K., Satyanarayana, A. N. V., & Kumar, B. P. (2013). Intensity of tropical cyclones during pre-and post-monsoon seasons in relation to accumulated tropical cyclone heat potential over Bay of Bengal. Natural Hazards, 68(2), 351–371.
Wang, B., & Li, T. (1994). Convective interaction with boundary-layer dynamics in the development of a tropical intraseasonal system. Journal of the atmospheric sciences, 51(11), 1386–1400.
Wang, T., Yang, X. Q., Fang, J., Sun, X., & Ren, X. (2018). Role of air–sea Interaction in the 30–60-Day Boreal Summer Intraseasonal Oscillation over the Western North Pacific. Journal of Climate, 31(4), 1653–1680.
Webster, P. J., Clark, C., Cherikova, G., Fasullo, J., Han, W., Loschnigg, J., et al. (2002). The monsoon as a self-regulating coupled ocean—atmosphere system. International Geophysics, 83, 198–219.
Woolnough, S. J., Slingo, J. M., & Hoskins, B. J. (2000). The relationship between convection and sea surface temperature on intraseasonal timescales. Journal of Climate, 13(12), 2086–2104.
Wu, L., Wong, S., Wang, T., & Huffman, G. J. (2018). Moist convection: a key to tropical wave–moisture interaction in Indian monsoon intraseasonal oscillation. Climate Dynamics, 51, 1–12.
Xi, J., Zhou, L., Murtugudde, R., & Jiang, L. (2015). Impacts of intraseasonal SST anomalies on precipitation during Indian summer monsoon. Journal of Climate, 28(11), 4561–4575.
Yamaura, T., & Kajikawa, Y. (2017). Decadal change in the boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation. Climate Dynamics, 48(9–10), 3003–3014.
Yun, K. S., Seo, K. H., & Ha, K. J. (2010). Interdecadal change in the relationship between ENSO and the intraseasonal oscillation in East Asia. Journal of Climate, 23(13), 3599–3612.
Zeng, L., & Wang, D. (2009). Intraseasonal variability of latent-heat flux in the South China Sea. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 97(1–2), 53–64.
Zhang, C. (1996). Atmospheric intraseasonal variability at the surface in the tropical western Pacific Ocean. Journal of the atmospheric sciences, 53(5), 739–758.
Zhang, C. (2005). Madden-Julian oscillation. Reviews of Geophysics, 43, 2. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004RG000158.
Zhang, C., Gottschalck, J., Maloney, E. D., Moncrieff, M. W., Vitart, F., Waliser, D. E., et al. (2013). Cracking the MJO nut. Geophysical Research Letters, 40(6), 1223–1230.
Zhang, G. J., & Mcphaden, M. J. (1995). The relationship between sea surface temperature and latent heat flux in the equatorial Pacific. Journal of Climate, 8(3), 589–605.
Zheng, Y., Waliser, D. E., Stern, W. F., & Jones, C. (2004). The role of coupled sea surface temperatures in the simulation of the tropical intraseasonal oscillation. Journal of Climate, 17(21), 4109–4134.
Zhou, C., & Li, T. (2010). Upscale feedback of tropical synoptic variability to intraseasonal oscillations through the nonlinear rectification of the surface latent heat flux. Journal of Climate, 23(21), 5738–5754.
Zhou, L., Murtugudde, R., Chen, D., & Tang, Y. (2017). Seasonal and interannual variabilities of the central Indian Ocean mode. Journal of Climate, 30(16), 6505–6520.
Zhu, J., Wang, W., & Kumar, A. (2017). Simulations of MJO propagation across the Maritime continent: impacts of SST feedback. Journal of Climate, 30(5), 1689–1704.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India [Science and Engineering Research Board (grant ref: ECR/2016/001896)]. NKV would like to thank late Prof. M. Bonell (University of Dundee, UK) for sharing his wonderful knowledge and experience on this topic. The authors would like to thank the editors Dr. M Ravichandran and Dr. VSN Murty for their initial comments. The authors are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their meticulous comments and valuable suggestions.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Konda, G., Vissa, N.K. Intraseasonal Convection and Air–Sea Fluxes Over the Indian Monsoon Region Revealed from the Bimodal ISO Index. Pure Appl. Geophys. 176, 3665–3680 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-019-02119-1
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-019-02119-1