Abstract
This article reports the results of a controlled lab experiment that studies the effects of strategically irrelevant “cheap talk” via 3D world audio communication and 2D text messaging. I also analyze the effects of technical information richness, experience with a communication medium, social distance and collective orientation on cooperation. The findings indicate that persons in a situational setting that allows them to hope that the partner will respond in a cooperative manner show a higher degree of cooperation when engaging in cheap-talk computer-mediated-communication. The results show also that low social distance, collective orientation and experience with a medium is favorable for demonstrating trust, trustworthiness and cooperation.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Amichai-Hamburger, Yair (2005), The social net: Human behavior in cyberspace, New York, NJ: Oxford University Press.
Andreoni, James and John H. Miller (1993), Rational cooperation in the finitely repeated prisoner’s dilemma: experimental evidence, The Economic Journal 103, 570–585.
Back, Kurt W. (1951), Influence through social communication, Journal of Abnormal Psychology 46, 9–23.
Bailenson, Jeremy N. and Jim Blascovich (2004), Avatars, in Wiliam S. Bainbridge (ed.), Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, Great Barrington: Berkshire Publishing Group, 64–68.
Bailenson, Jeremy N. and Nick Yee (2006), A longitudinal study of task performance, head movements, subjective report, simulator sickness, and transformed social interaction in collaborative virtual environments, Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 15, 699–716.
Bailenson, Jeremy N., Nick Yee, Dan Merget, and Ralph Schroeder (2006), The Effect of Behavioral Realism and Form Realism of Real-Time Avatar Faces on Verbal Disclosure, Nonverbal Disclosure, Emotion Recognition, and Copresence in Dyadic Interaction, Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 15, 359–372.
Baron, Reuben M. and David A. Kenny (1986), The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51, 1173–1182.
Berg, Joyce, John Dickhaut, and Kevin McCabe (1995), Trust, reciprocity, and social history, Games and Economic Behaviour 10, 122–142.
Biocca, Frank (1995), Intelligence augmentation: The vision inside virtual reality, in Barbara Gorayska and Jacob L. Mey (eds.), Cognitive technology, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 59–73.
Biocca, Frank and Kristine Nowak (2002), Plugging your body into the telecommunication system: Mediated embodiment, media interfaces, and social virtual environments, in David Atkin and Carolyn Lin (eds.), Communication technology and society: Audience adoption and uses, Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 407–447.
Blume, Andreas (1998), Communication, Risk, and Efficiency in Games, Games and Economic Behavior 22, 171–202.
Bochet, Olivier, Page Talbot, and Louis Putterman (2006), Communication and Punishment in Voluntary Contribution Experiments, Journal of Economic Behaviour & Organization 60, 11–26.
Bohnet, Iris and Bruno S. Frey (1999), The sound of silence in prisoner’s dilemma and dictator games, Journal of Economic Behaviour & Organization 38, 43–57.
Bolton, Gary and Axel Ockenfles (2002), ERC — A Theory of Equity, Reciprocity and Competition, American Economic Review 90, 166–193.
Bracht, Juergen and Nick Feltovich (2007), Efficiency in the trust game: an experimental study of precommitment, International Journal of Game Theory, published online.
Breuer, Markus (2007), Second Life und business in virtuellen Welten, Whitepaper, Elephant Seven AG Hamburg.
Brewer, Marilynn B. and Madelyn Silver (1978), in-group bias as a function of task characteristics, European Journal of Social Psychology 8, 393–400.
Brosig, Jeannette (2002), Identifying Cooperative Behaviour: Some Experimental Results in a Prisoner’s Dilemma Game, Journal of Economic Behaviour & Organization 47, 257–290.
Brosig, Jeannette, Axel Ockenfels, and Joachim Weimann (2003), The Effect of Communication Media on Cooperation, German Economic Review 4, 217–241.
Buchan, Nancy R. and Rachel T. A. Croson (1999), Gender and culture: international experimental evidence from trust games, American Economic Review 89, 386–891.
Buchan, Nancy R., Eric J. Johnson, and Rachel T. A. Croson (2006), Let’s get personal: an international examination of the influence of communication, culture and social distance on other regarding preferences, Journal of Economic Behaviour & Organization 60, 373–398.
Carlson, John R. and Robert W. Zmud (1999), Channel expansion theory and the experimental nature of media richness perceptions, Academy of Management Journal 42, 153–170.
Carter, John R. and Michael D. Irons (1991), Are Economists Different, and If So, Why?, Journal of Economic Perspectives 5, 171–177.
Charness, Gary and Martin Dufwenberg (2006), Promises and Partnership, Econometrica 74, 1579–1601.
Charness, Gary and Martin Dufwenberg (2007), Broken Promises: An Experiment, Working Paper, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1114404.
Charness, Gary, Ernan Haruvy, and Doron Sonsino (2007), Social Distance and Reciprocity: An Internet Experiment, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 63, 88–103.
Chen, Yang and Sherry Li (forthcoming), Group Identity and Social Preferences, American Economic Review, forthcoming.
Cheng, Lili, Shelly Farnham, and Linda Stone (2002), Lessons learned: Building and deploying shared virtual environments, in Ralph Schroeder (ed.), The social life of avatars: Presence and interaction in shared virtual environments, London: Springer, 90–111.
Connell, Joanie B., Gerald A. Mendelson, Richard W. Robins, and John Canny (2001), Effects of communication medium on interpersonal perceptions: Don’t hang up the Telefone yet!, in Proceedings of the 2001 International ACM SIGGROUP Conference on Supporting Group Work, Boulder, Colorado, USA, 1–9.
Cooper, Russell, Douglas V. DeJong, Robert Forsythe, and Thomas W. Ross (1989), Communication in the Battle of the Sexes Game: Some experimental results, The RAND Journal of Economics 20, 568–587.
Cooper, Russell, Douglas V. DeJong, Robert Forsythe, and Thomas W. Ross (1992), Communication in Coordination Games, Quarterly Journal of Economics 107, 739–771.
Crawford, Vincent P. and Joel Sobel (1982), Strategic Information Transmission, Econometrica 50, 1431–1451.
Crawford, Vincent P (1998), A survey of experiments on communication via cheap talk, Journal of Economic Theory 78, 286–298.
Croson, Rachel T. A. and Uri Gneezy (2004), Gender differences in preferences, Working Paper, Pennsylvania.
Daft, Richard L. and Robert H. Lengel (1983), Information richness: a new approach to managerial behavior and organizational design, in L. L. Cummings and Barry M. Staw (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, Homewood, IL: JAI Press, 191–233.
Daft, Richard L., Robert H. Lengel, and Linda K. Trevino (1987), Message equivocality, media selection and manager performance: Implications for information systems, MIS Quarterly 11, 355–368.
Dawes, Robyn M., Jeanne McTavish, and Harriet Shaklee (1977), Behaviour, Communication, and Assumptions About Other People’s Behaviour in A Commons Dilemma Situation, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35, 1–11.
Dennis, Alan R. and Joseph S. Valacich (1999), Rethinking media richness: towards a theory of media synchronicity, in Proceedings of the 32nd Hawaii international conference on system science, Maui, HI, USA, 1–10.
Duffy, John and Nick Feltovich (2002), Do actions speak louder than words? Observation vs. cheap talk as coordination devices, Games and Economic behavior 39, 1–27.
Dufwenberg, Martin and Astri Muren (2002), Discrimination by gender and social distance, Whitepaper, Stockholm.
Eckel, Catherine C. and Philipp J. Grossman (2003), Men, women and risk aversion: experimental evidence, Working Paper, New York.
Ellingsen, Tore and Magnus Johannesson (2002), Promises, Threats, and Fairness, Economic Journal 114, 397–420.
Farrell, Joseph (1987), Cheap Talk, Coordination, and Entry, The RAND Journal of Economics 18, 34–39.
Farrell, Joseph (1988), Communication, coordination and Nash equilibrium, Economics Letter 27, 209–214.
Fehr, Ernst and Klaus M. Schmidt (1999), A Theory of Fairness, Competition and Cooperation, Quarterly Journal of Economics 114, 817–868.
Fiedler, Marina and Julia Gallenkamp (2008), Virtualisierung der Kommunikation — Der Beitrag von Informationsreichhaltigkeit für Kooperation, Wirtschaftsinformatik 6, 472–481.
Fiedler, Marina and Ernan Haruvy (2008a), The Lab versus the virtual lab and virtual field — an experimental investigation of trust games with communication, Working Paper, University of Texas at Dallas.
Fiedler, Marina, Ernan Haruvy, and Sherry Xin Li (2008b), Social distance in a virtual world experiment, Working Paper, University of Texas at Dallas.
Forsythe, Robert, Joel L. Horowitz, Nathan E. Savin, and Martin Sefton (1994), Fairness in simple bargaining experiments, Games and Economic Behavior 6, 347–369.
Frank, Robert H. (1988), Passions Within Reason. The Strategic Role of the Emotions, New York: Norton & Co.
Frank, Robert H., Thomas Gilovich, and Dennis T. Regan (1993), Does studying economics inhibit cooperation?, Journal of Economic Perspectives 7, 159–171.
Frey, Bruno S. and Iris Bohnet (1997), Identification in democratic society, Journal of Socio-Economics 26, 25–39.
Frey, Bruno S. and Stephan Meier (2002), Selfish and indoctrinated economists, Working Paper, Institute for Empirical Research in Economics University of Zurich.
Frohlich, Norman and Joe Oppenheimer (1998), Some consequences of e-mail vs. face-to-face communication in experiment, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 35, 389–403.
Gartner (2007), Worldwide Consumer Broadband Penetration Sees Rapid Growth but Current Price Strategy Alone is Not Sustainable for Telecom Carriers Says Gartner, http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=501276 url.
Green, Jerry R. and Nancy L. Stokey (1983), A comparison of tournaments and contracts, Journal of Political Economy 91, 349–364.
Greiner, Ben, Werner Güth, and Ro’i Zultan (2005), Let the Dummy Talk! Unilateral Communication andDiscrimination in Three-Person Dictator Experiments, Working Paper, University of Cologne.
Güth, Werner, Rolf Schmittberger, and Bernd Schwarze (1982), An experimental analysis of ultimatum bargaining, Journal of Economic Behaviour & Organization 3, 367–388.
Güth, Werner (1995), On ultimatum bargaining experiments — A personal review, Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organization 27, 329–344.
Gysler, Matthias, Jamie Brown-Kruse, and Renate Schubert (2002), Ambiguity and gender differences in financial decision making: an experimental examination of competence and confidence effects, Working Paper, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.
Henrich, Joseph and Natalie Smith (1999), Culture matters in bargaining and cooperation: cross-cultural evidence from Peru, Chile and the U.S, Working Paper, Ann Arbor MI.
Hoffman, Elizabeth,Kevin McCabe, and Vernon L. Smith (1996), Social distance and other regarding behavior in dictator games, The American Economic Review 86, 653–660.
Hoffman, Elizabeth and Matthew Spitzer (1982), The Coase Theorem: Some experimental tests, Journal of Law and Economics 25, 73–98.
Isaac, R. Mark and James M. Walker (1988), Communication and free-riding behaviour: the voluntary contribution mechanism, Economic Inquiry 26, 585–608.
Jarvenpaa, Sirkka L. and Dorothy E. Leidner (1999), Communication and Trust in Global Virtual Teams, Organization Science 10, 791–815.
Jensen, Carlos, Shelly D. Farnham, Steven M. Drucker, and Peter Kollock (1999), The effect of communication modality on cooperation in online environments, in Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems, The Hague, The Netherlands, April 2000, 470–477.
Johnson, Johnnie E.V. and Philip L. Powell (1994), Decision making, risk and gender: are managers different?, British Journal of Management 5, 123–138.
Kagel, John H., Chung Kim, and Donald Moser (1996), Fairness in ultimatum games with asymmetric information and asymmetric payoffs, Games and Economic Behavior 13, 100–110.
Kayworth, Timothy and Dorothy Leidner (2000), The global virtual manager: a prescription for success, European Management Journal 18, 183–194.
Kelly, Janice, Gail Futoran, and Joseph McGrath (1990), Capacity and capability: seven studies of entertainment of task performance in task performance rates, Small Group Research 21, 283–314.
Kelly, Janice and Joseph McGrath (1985), Effects of time limits and task types on task performance and interaction of four person groups, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49, 395–407.
Keltner, Dacher and George A. Bonanno (1997), A study of laughter and dissociation: The distinct correlates of laughter and smiling during bereavement, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73, 687–702.
Kiesler, Sara, Jane Siegel, and Timothy W. McGuire (1984), Social psychological aspects of computer-mediated communication, American Psychologist 39, 1123–1134.
King, Ruth C. and Xia Weidong (1997), Media appropriateness: effects of experience on communication media choice, Decision Sciences 28, 877–910.
Kock, Ned (2004), The psychobiological model: Towards a new theory of computer-mediated communication based on Darwinian evolution, Organization Science 15, 327–348.
Kollock, Peter (1998), Social Dilemmas: The Anatomy of Cooperation, Annual Review of Sociology 24, 183–214.
Lea, Rodger, Yasuaki Honda, and Kouichi Matsuda (1997), Virtual Society: Collaboration in 3D Spaces on the Internet. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, The Journal of Collaborative Computing 6, 227–250.
Lea, Martin and Russell Spears (1992), Paralanguage and Social Perception in Computer-Mediated Communication, Journal of Organizational Computing 2, 321–341.
Levine, David K. (1995), Modelling altruism and spitefulness in experiments, Working Paper, Department of Economics UCLA.
Linden Research Inc. (2007), What is Second Life?, http://www.secondlife.com/whatis/.
Markus, M. Lynne (1994), Electronic Mail as the Medium of Managerial Choice, Organization Science 5, 502–527.
Maznevski, Martha L. and Katherine M. Chudoba (2000), Bridging Space over Time: Global virtual team dynamics and effectiveness, Organization Science 11, 473–492.
McKelvey, Richard D. and Thomas R. Palfrey (1992), An experimental study of the centipede game, Econometrica 60, 803–836.
Merola, Nicholas, Jorge Penas, and Jeff Hancock (2006), Avatar color and social identity effects: On attitudes and group dynamics in virtual realities, Paper presented at the ICA 2006, Dresden, Germany.
Meyerson, Debra, Karl E. Weick, and Roderick M. Kramer (1996), Swift trust and temporary groups, in Roderick M. Kramer and Tom R. Tyler (eds.), Trust in Organizations: Frontiers of Theory and Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 166–195.
Nardi, Bonnie and Steve Whittaker (2002), The place of face-to-face communication in distributed work, in Pamela J. Hinds and Sara Kiesler (eds.), Distributed Work: New Research on Working across distance using technology, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 83–110.
Nichols, Shaun (2006), Building the 3D Internet, IT-News, 27.11.2006, http://www.itnews.com.au/newsstory.aspx?CIaNID=42704.
Nohria, Nitin and Robert G. Eccles (1992), Networks and Organizations: Structure, Form, and Action, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Nowak, Christine L. and Christian Rauh (2005), The Influence of the Avatar on Online Perceptions of Anthropomorphism, Androgyny, Credibility, Homophily, and Attraction, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 11, 153–178.
Ngwenyama, Ojelanki K. and Allen S. Lee (1997), Communication Richness in Electronic Mail: Critical Social Theory and the Contextuality of Meaning, MIS Quarterly 21, 145–167.
Nydegger, Rudy and Guillermo Owen (1974), Two Person Bargaining: An experimental test of the Nash axioms, International Journal of Game Theory 3, 329–349.
O’Hara-Devereaux, Mary and Robert Johansen (1994), Globalwork: Bridging Distance, Culture, and Time, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Orbell, John M., Alphons J. van de Kragt, and Robyn M. Dawes (1988), Explaining Discussion-Induced Cooperation, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, 811–819.
Ostrom, Elinor, James Walker, and Roy Gardner (1992), Covenants With and Without a Sword: Self-Governance is Possible, The American Political Science Review 86, 404–417.
Piller, Frank and Fabrizzio Salvador (2007), A total makeover of retail — Rather than pursuing marginal improvements in speed, the next source of competitive advantage for retailers lies on creating virtual representations of their customers and assortments, Working Paper.
Postmes, Tom, Russell Spears, and Martin Lea (1998), Breaching or Building Social Boundaries?, Communication Research 25, 689–715.
Powell, Walter W. (1990), Neither Market Nor Hierarchy: Network Forms of Organization, Research in Organizational Behavior 12, 295–336.
Preece, Jenny and Diane Maloney-Krichmar (2003), Online Communities, in Julie Jacko and Andrew Sears (eds.), Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Publishers, 596–620.
Prentice, Deborah A., Dale T. Miller, and Jenifer R. Lightdale (1994), Asymmetries in Attachments to Groups and to their Members: Distinguishing between Common-Identity and Common-Bond Groups, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20, 484–493.
Rabin, Matthew (1993), Incorporation fairness into game theory and economics, The American Economic Revue 83, 1281–1302.
Radner, Roy and Andrew Schotter (1989), The Sealed-Bid Mechanism: An experimental study, Journal of Economic Theory 48, 179–220.
Ren, Yuqing, Robert Kraut, and Sara Kiesler (2007), Applying Common Identity and Bond Theory to Design of Online Communities, Organization Studies 28, 377–408.
Rice, Roland E. and Douglas E. Shook (1990), Relationships of job categories and organizational levels to use of communication channels, including electronic mail: A meta-analysis and extension, Journal of Management Studies 27, 195–229.
Roth, Alvin E. (1995), Bargaining Experiments, in John H. Kagel and Alvin E. Roth (eds.), The Handbook of Experimental Economics, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 253–348.
Salem, Ben (2005), Commedia virtuale: from theatre to avatars, Digital Creativity 6, 129–139.
Sally, David (1995), Conversation and cooperation in social dilemmas: a meta analysis of experiment from 19581992, Rationality and Society 7, 58–90.
Schmidt, Carsten and Ro’i Zultan (2005), The Uncontrolled Social Utility Hypothesis Revisited, Economics Bulletin 3, 1–7.
Schroeder, Ralph (2002), Social interaction in virtual environments: Key issues, common themes, and a framework for research, in Ralph Schroeder (ed.), The social life of avatars; Presence and interaction in shared virtual environments, London: Springer, 1–16.
Schubert, Renate, Martin Brown, Matthias Gysler, and Hans W. Brachinger (1999), Financial decision making: are women really more risk avers?, in AEA Papers and Proceedings, 381–385.
Scodel, Alvin, Syer J. Minas, Philiburn Ratoosh, and Milton Lipetz (1959), Some descriptive aspects of two-person, non-zero-sum games, Journal of Conflict Resolution 3, 114–119.
Sharma, Dinesh (2005), Study: Broadband penetration to surge by 2010, CNETNews, http://news.com.com/2100-1034_3-5815756.html.
Sheeks, Miranda S. and Zachary P. Birchmeier (2007), Shyness, Sociability, and the Use of Computer-Mediated Communication in Relationship Development, Cyper-Psychology & Behavior 10, 64–70.
Short, John, Ederyn Williams, and Bruce Christie (1976), The social psychology of telecommunications, London: Wiley & Sons.
Slater, Mel and Martin Usoh (1994), Body centred interaction in immersive virtual environments, in Nadia M. Thalmann and Daniel Thalmann (eds.), Artificial Life and Virtual Reality, New York, NJ: Wiley & Sons, 125–148.
Spears, Russell and Martin Lea (1994), Panacea or panopticon? The hidden power in computer-mediated communication, Communication Research 21, 427–459.
Sproull, Lee and Sara Kiesler (1991), Connections: New ways of working in the networked organization, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Straub, Detmar W. (1994), The effect of culture on IT Diffusion: E-Mail and FAX in Japan and the U.S., Information Systems Research 5, 23–47.
Sutter, Matthias and Christina Strassmaier (2005), Communication, cooperation and collusion in team tournaments/an experimental study, Working Paper, Innsbruck and Munich.
Tajfel, Henri (1972), Experiments in a vacuum, in Joachim Israel and Henri T. Triandis (eds.), The context of social psychology: A critical assessment, London: Academic Press, 69–119.
Taylor, Tina L. (2002), Living digitally: Embodiment in virtual worlds, London: Springer.
Turk, Matthew, Jeremy Bailenson, Andrew Beall, Jim Blascovich, and Rosanna Guadagno (2004), Multimodal transformed social interaction, International Conference on Multimodal Interfaces, in Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Multimodal interfaces, 2004, State College, Pennsylvania, USA, 46–52.
Turner, John C. (1985), Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behavior, in Edward J. Lawler (ed.), Advances in group processes: Theory and research, Ridgeway: JAI Press, 77–122.
Walther, Joseph B. (1994), Anticipated ongoing interaction versus channel effects on relational communication in computer mediated interaction, Human Communication Research 20, 473–501.
Walther, Joseph B. (1996), Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal and hyperpersonal interactions, Communication Research 23, 3–43.
Walther, Joseph B. (1997), Group and interpersonal effects in international computer-mediated collaboration, Human Communication Research 23, 342–369.
Walther, Joseph B., Jeffrey Anderson, and David W. Park (1994), Interpersonal effects in computer-mediated interaction: A meta-analysis of social and anti-social communication, Communication Research 21, 460–487.
Walther, Joseph B., Ulla Bunz, and Natalia Bazarova (2005), The rules of virtual groups, Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii Conference on System Sciences.
Walther, Joseph B. and Malcom R. Parks (2002), Cues filtered out, cues filtered in: Computer-mediated communication and relationships, in Mark L. Knapp and John A. Daly (eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 529–563.
Watson-Manheim, Mary B. and France Bélanger (2007), Communication media repertoires: Dealing with the multiplicity of media choices, MIS Quarterly 31, 267–293.
Wilson, E. Vance (2005), Persuasive effects of system features in computer-mediated communication, Journal of organizational computing and electronic commerce 15, 161–184.
Wilson, Rick K. and Jane Sell (1997), Liar Liar…, Cheap talk and reputation in repeated public goods setting, Journal of Conflict Resolution 41, 695–717.
Yee, Nick and Jeremy Bailenson (in press), The Proteus Effect: The Effect of Transformed Self-Representation on Behavior, Human Communication Research.
Yee, Nick (2007), The Proteus effect: behavioural modification via transformations of digital self-representation, dissertation.
Yezer, Anthony M., Robert S. Goldfarb, and Paul J. Poppen (1996), Does studying economics discourage cooperation? Watch what I do, not what I say or how I play, Journal of Economic Perspectives 10, 177–186.
Zhang, Dongsong, Paul B. Lowry, Lina Zhou, and Xiaolan Fu (2007), The impact of individualism-collectivism, social presence, and group diversity on group decision making under majority influence, Journal of Management Information Systems 23, 53–80.
Zheng, Jun, Nathan Bos, Judith S. Olson, and Gary M. Olson (2001), Trust without touch: jum-start trust with social chat, in Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Seattle, WA, 293–294.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
I am indebted to Rachel Croson, Ernan Haruvy, Sherry Li, Arnold Picot, Klaus Schmidt, and Anja Tuschke for helpful advice. I thank Mehmed Celik, Miriam Davood-Badal, Lisa Dettendorfer, Michael Hauser, Silvia Heer, Michael Kellerer, Clemens Mache, Marcel Michelmann, Christoph Partosch, Silke Schuppler, and especially Marco van Baal, Julia Gallenkamp, and Katharina Hennig for excellent research assistance. Financial support of LMUexcellent is gratefully acknowledged.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fiedler, M. Cooperation in Virtual Worlds. Schmalenbach Bus Rev 61, 173–194 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03396783
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03396783