Abstract
Children from low socioeconomic backgrounds (SES) are at increased risk of reading problems. Although phonological awareness consistently emerges as a critical literacy skill for children, little research exists regarding the effects of the acquisition of phonological awareness skills on decreasing the reading achievement gap between children of different SES levels. In this study, 50 first graders from low SES backgrounds were randomly assigned to receivelO weeks of phonological awareness intervention or a control condition. In addition, 25 first graders from middle-high SES backgrounds served as a comparison group. A significant difference in phonological awareness skills was found between children in the low SES intervention group who received the phonological awareness intervention and similar children in the control group who did not receive the intervention. Reading skill differences between the low SES intervention and control groups were found at follow-up 24 weeks later but not immediately following intervention. Although the gap in reading skills of children from the low SES intervention group and the middle-high SES comparison group decreased, reading differences remained. Implications of findings with regard to prevention and identification of children at-risk for reading difficulties, as well as planning and implementing early literacy intervention for children from disadvantaged backgrounds are provided.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, M.J., Foorman, B.R., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T.D. (1997). Phonemic awareness in young children: A classroom curriculum. Baltimore, MA: Brookes Publishing.
Arnold, D.H., & Doctoroff, G.L. (2003). The early education of socioeconomically disadvantaged children. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 517–545.
Baker, L., Serpell, R., & Sonnenschein, S. (1995). Opportunities for literacy learning in the homes of urban preschoolers. In L.M. Morrow (Ed.). Family literacy: Connections in schools and communities. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Bhat, P., Griffin, C.C., & Sindelar, P.T. (2003). Phonological awareness instruction for middle school students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 26, 73–87.
Bowey, J.A. (1995). Socioeconomic status differences in preschool phonological sensitivity and first-grade reading achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 476–187.
Bradley, R.H., Corwyn, R.F., McAdoo, H.P., & Garcia Coll, C. (2001). The home environments of children in the United States Part 1: Variations by age, ethnicity, and poverty status. Child Development, 72, 1844–1867.
Catts, H.W., Bridges, M.S., Little, T.D., & Tomblin, J.B. (2008). Reading achievement growth in children with language impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51, 1569–1579.
Celebrate Reading. (1997). Glenview, IL: Scott-Foresman.
Chatterji, M. (2006). Reading achievement gaps, correlates, and moderators of early reading achievement: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS) Kindergarten to First Grade Sample. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 489–507.
Children’s Educational Services (1987). Test of Reading Fluency. MN, Minneapolis: Author.
Dickinson, D.K., & Snow, C.E. (1987). Interrelationships among prereading and oral language skills in kindergartners from two social classes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 2, 1–25.
Foorman, B.R., Francis, D.J., Beeler, T., Winikates, D., & Fletcher, J.M. (1997). Early interventions for children with reading problems: Study designs and preliminary findings. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8, 63–71.
Francis, D.J., Shaywitz, S.E., Stuebing, K.K., Shaywitz, B.A., & Fletcher, J.M. (1996). Developmental lag versus deficit models of reading disability: A longitudinal, individual growth curves analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 3–17.
Goldenberg, C. (1996). Schools, children at risk, and successful interventions. In A. Booth & J. Dunn (Eds.), Family-school links: How do they affect educational outcomes (pp. 115–124). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Goldhaber, D.D. (2002). The mystery of good teaching. Education Next, 2, 50–55.
Good, R.H., Gruba, J., & Kaminski, R.A. (2002). Best practices in using Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) in an outcomes-driven model. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 699–720). Washington DC: National Association of School Psychologists.
Good, R.H., Simmons, D., Kame’enui, E., Kaminski, R.A., & Wallin, J. (2002). Summary of decision rules for intensive, strategic, and benchmark instructional recommendations in kindergarten through third grade (Technical Report No. 11). Eugene, OR: University of Oregon.
Hagans, K.S. (2008). A response-to-intervention approach to decreasing early literacy differences in first graders from difference socioeconomic backgrounds: Evidence for the intervention validity of the DIBELS. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 34,1, 35–12.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
Herring, W.L., McGrath, D.J., & Buckley, J.A. (2007). Demographic and school characteristics of students receiving special education in the elementary grades. Issue Brief. Author: National Center for Education Statistics.
Hiebert, E.H., Pearson, P.D., Taylor, B.M., Richardson, V., Paris, S.G. (1998). Every Child a Reader. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement.
Hiebert, E.H., & Taylor, B.M. (2000). Beginning reading instruction: Research on early interventions. In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosenthal, P. David Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research, Vol. III (pp. 455–482). Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 students from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 437–147.
Kame’enui, E.J., & Simmons, D.C. (1990). Designing instructional strategies: Prevention of academic learning problems. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Kowalski, K., Pretti-Fronczak, K., & Johnson, L. (2001). Preschool teachers’ beliefs concerning the importance of various developmental skills and abilities. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 16, 5–14.
Lerkkanen, M., Rasku-Puttonen, H., Aunola, K., & Nurmi, J. (2004). Reading performance and its developmental trajectories during the first and the second grade. Learning and Instruction, 14, 111–130.
Lupton, R. (2005). Social justice and school improvement: improving the quality of schooling in the poorest neighborhoods. British Educational Research Journal, 31, 589–604.
Magnuson, K.A., Ruhm, C., & Waldfogel, J. (2007). The persistence of preschool effects: Do subsequent classroom experiences matter? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22, 18–38.
Majsterek, D.J., Shorr, D.N., & Erion, V.L. (2000). Promoting early literacy through rhyme detection activities during Head Start circle-time. Child Study Journal, 30, 143–151.
McGill-Franzen, A., Lanford, C., & Adams, E. (2002). Learning to be literate: A comparison of five urban early childhood programs. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 443–464.
McLoyd, V. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 296–318.
Nam, C.B., & Terrie, E.W. (1993). Comparison of three occupational scales. Paper presented at the Intercongress Seminar of the International Sociological Association, Montreal, Canada.
Nancollis, A., Lawrie, B., & Dodd, B. (2005). Phonological awareness intervention and the acquisition of literacy skills in children from deprived social backgrounds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 325–335.
National Assessment of Educational Progress. (2009). The nation’s report card. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
National Early Literacy Panel. (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy. Retrieved from http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/NELPReport09.pdf
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Noble, K.G., Farah, M.J. & McCandliss, B.D. (2006). Socioeconomic background modulates the effect of phonological awareness on reading. Cognitive Development, 21, 349–368.
Nye, B., Konstantopoulos, S., & Hedges, L.V. (2004). How large are teacher effects? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26, 237–257.
O’Connor, R.E., Jenkins, J.R., Leicester, N., & Slocum, T.A. (1993). Teaching phonological awareness to young children with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 59, 532–546.
Oh, S., & Reynolds, A.J. (2008). Predictors of educational attainment in the Chicago Longitudinal Study. School Psychology Quarterly, 23, 199–229.
Payne, A.C., Whithurst, G.J., & Angell, A.L. (1994). The role of home literacy environment in the development of language ability in preschool children from low-income families. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 9, 427–440.
Pianta, R.C., LaParo, K.M., Payne, C., Cox, M.J., & Bradley, R. (2002). The relation of kindergarten classroom environment to teacher, family, and school characteristics and child outcomes. The Elementary School Journal, 102, 225–238.
Pressley, M., Roehrig, A., Bogner, K., Raphael, L.M., & Dolezal, S. (2002). Balanced literacy instruction. Focus on Exceptional Children, 34, 1–14.
Raz, I.S., & Bryant, P. (1990). Social background, phonological awareness and children’s reading. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 8, 209–225.
Roberts, J.E., Jurgens, J. & Burchinal, M. (2005). The role of home literacy practices in preschool children’s language and emergent literacy skills. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48, 345–359.
Rowan, B., Correnti, R., & Miller, R. (2002). What large-scale survey research tells us about teacher effects on student achievement: Insights from the Prospects Study of Elementary Schools. Teachers College Record, 104, 1525–1567.
Scanlon, D.M., Vellutino, F.R., Small, S.G., Fanuele, & Sweeney, J.M. (2005). Severe reading difficulties — can they be prevented? A comparison of prevention and intervention approaches. Exceptionality, 13, 209–227.
Schuele, C.M., & Boudreau, D. (2008). Phonological awareness intervention: Beyond the basics. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39, 3–20.
Shadish, W.R., Cook, T.D., & Campbell, D.T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Simmons, D.C., & Kame’enui, E.J. (Eds.) (1998). What reading research tells us about children with diverse learning needs: Bases and basics. Mahwah, NY: Erlbaum.
Smith, S.S., & Dixon, R.G. (1995). Literacy concepts of low- and middle-class four-year-olds entering preschool. The Journal of Educational Research, 88, 243–253.
Speece, D.L., & Ritchey, K.D. (2005). A longitudinal study of the development of oral reading fluency in young children at risk for reading failure. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 387–399.
Stanovich, K.E. (1986). Mathew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360–407.
Stein, M., Johnson, B., & Gutlohn, L. (1999). Analyzing beginning reading programs: The relationship between decoding instruction and text. Remedial and Special Education, 20, 275–287.
Tajalli, H., & Opheim, C. (2005). Strategies for closing the gap: Predicting student performance in economically disadvantaged schools. Educational Research Quarterly, 28, 44–54.
Tindal G., Marston, D. & Deno, S.L., (1983). The reliability of direct and repeated measurement. (Research Report No. 109). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Institute for Research on Learning Disabilities.
Torgesen, J.K., & Burgess, S.R. (1998). Consistency of reading-related phonological processes throughout early childhood: Evidence from longitudinal–correlational and instructional studies. In J. Metsala & L. Ehri (Eds.), Word recognition in beginning reading (pp. 161–188). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2009). The 2009 HHS Poverty Guidelines. Retrieved from http://aspe.hhs.gov/POVERTY/09poverty.shtml
Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., & Hickman, P. (2003). Response to treatment as a means for identifying students with reading/learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69, 391–410.
Vellutino, F.R., & Scanlon, D.M. (2001). Emergent literacy skills, early instruction, and individual differences as determinants of difficulties in learning to read: The case for early intervention. In S. Neuman & D. Dickenson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 295–321). New York: Guilford Press.
Wanzek, J., & Vaughn, S. (2008). Response to varying amounts of time in reading intervention for students with low response to intervention. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 126–142.
White, V.R., Chau, M., & Aratani, Y. (2010). Who are America’s poor children? New York, NY: National Center for Children in Poverty, Columbia University, Mailman School of Public Health.
Whitehurst, G.J., & Lonigan, C.J. (2001). Emergent literacy: Development from prereaders. In S. Neuman & D. Dickenson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 11–29). New York: Guilford Press.
Young, A.R., Beitchman, J.H., Johnson, C., Douglas, L., Atkinson, L., & Escobar, M. (2002). Young adult outcomes in a longitudinal sample of early identified language impaired children and control children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 43, 635–645.
Zygouris-Coe, V. (2000). Balanced Reading Instruction in K-3 Classrooms (Document #1-001). Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Center, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hagans, K.S., Good, R.H. Decreasing Reading Differences in Children from Disadvantaged Backgrounds: The Effects of an Early Literacy Intervention. Contemp School Psychol 17, 103–117 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03340992
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03340992