Abstract
This paper reviews experiments, hypotheses, and current controversies about instrumental cardiovascular conditioning. Demonstrations of such conditioning in curarized animals challenged a differentiation between instrumental and classical learning on the basis of their respective effector systems but did not prove direct operant learning by the autonomic nervous system. In humans, ethical prohibition of curarization and lack of adequate controls for respiration and muscle tension have resulted in incomplete understanding of the roles of voluntary, somatic mediators. Despite a variety of potential clinical applications of biofeedback, the available literature lacks studies of its efficacy compared to more standard modes of therapy. The physiological mechanisms and central neural pathways involved ininstrumental cardiovascular conditioning remainalmost totally unknown.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ainslie, G. N. and Engel, B. T.: Alteration of classicially conditioned heart rate by operant reinforcement. Pavlov. J. Biol. Sci.9, 173, 1975.
Alam, M. and Smirk, F. H.: Observations in man upon a blood pressure raising reflex arising from the voluntary muscles. J. Physiol.89, 372–383, 1937.
Alam, M. and Smirk, F. H.: Observations in man on a pulse accelerating reflex from the voluntary muscles of the leg. J. Physiol.92, 167–177, 1938.
Amsterdam, E. A., Hughes, J. L., III, DeMaria, A. N., Zelis, R. and Mason, D. T.: Indirect assessment of myocardial oxygen consumption in the evaluation of mechanisms and therapy of angina pectoris. Am. J. Cardiol.33, 737–743, 1974.
Anand, B. and Chhina, G.: Investigations on yogis claiming to stop their heart beats. Indian J. Med. Res.49, 90–94, 1961.
Bagchi, B. K. and Wenger, M. A.: Electrophysiological correlates of some yogi exercises. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. Suppl. 7, 1957.
Bartorelli, C., Bizzi, E., Libretti, A. and Zanchetti, A.: Inhibitory control of sinocarotid pressoceptive afferents on hypothalamic autonomic activity and sham rage behavior. Arch. Ital. Biol.98, 308–326, 1960.
Basmajian, J. V.: Control and training of individual motor units. Science141, 440–441, 1963.
Basmajian, J. V.: Conscious control and training of motor units and motor neurons.In Basmajian, J.V. (ed.),Muscles Alive. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkens, 1967.
Bell, R. and Schwartz, G. E.: Voluntary control and reactivity of human heart rate. Psychophysiology12, 339–348, 1975.
Belmaker, R., Proctor, E. and Feather, B. W.: Muscle tension in human operant heart rate conditioning. Cond. Reflex7, 97–106, 1972.
Benson, H., Herd, J. A., Morse, W. H. and Kelleher, R. T.: Behaviorally induced hypertension in the squirrel monkey. Circ. Res. Suppl. 1,26-27, 21–26, 1970.
Benson, H., Shapiro, D., Tursky, B. and Schwartz, G. E.: Decreased systolic blood pressure through operant conditioning techniques in patients with essential hypertension. Science173, 740–741, 1971.
Bergman, J. S. and Johnson, H. J.: The effects of instructional set and autonomic perception on cardiac control. Physchophysiology8, 180–190, 1971.
Birk, L.: Biofeedback—furor therapeuticus. Semin. Psychiatr.5, 1–4, 1973.
Black A. H.: Operant conditioning of autonomic responses. Cond. Reflex3, 130, 1968.
Black, A. H.: Mediating mechanisms of conditioning. Cond. Reflex5, 140–152, 1970.
Black, A. H.: Operant conditioning: the analysis of response mechanisms.In Obrist, P. A., Black, A. H., Brener, J. and DiCara, L. V. (eds.)Cardiovascular Psychophysiology. New York, Aldine, 1974.
Black, A. H. and DeToledo, L.: The relationship among classically conditioned responses: heart rate and skeletal behavior.In Black, A. H., Prokasy, W.F. (eds.),Classical Conditioning II: Current Theory and Research. New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972.
Black, P. (ed.):Physiological Correlates of Emotion. New York: Academic, Press, 1970.
Blanchard, E. B., Scott, R. W., Young, L. D. and Edmundson, E. D. Effect of knowledge of response on the self-control of heart rate. Psychophysiology11, 251–264, 1974.
Blanchard, E. B. and Young, L. D.: Self-control of cardiac functioning: a promise as yet unfulfilled. Psychol. Bull.79, 145–163, 1973.
Blanchard, E. B., Young, L. D., Haynes, M. R. and Kallman, M. D.: A simple feedback system for selfcontrol of blood pressure. Percept. Mot. Skills39, 891–898, 1974.
Blanchard, E. B., Young, L. D. and McLeod, P.: Awareness of heart activity and self-control of heart rate. Psychophysiology9, 63–68, 1972.
Bleecker, E. R. and Engel, B. T.: Learned control of ventricular rate in patients with atrial fibrillation. Psychosom. Med.35, 161–175, 1973a.
Bleecker, E. R. and Engel, B. T.: Learned control of cardiac function in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med.288, 560–562, 1973b.
Bonvallet, M. and Bloch, V.: Bulbar control of cortical arousal. Science133, 1133–1134, 1961.
Borst, C., Hollander, A. P. and Bouman, L. N.: Cardiac acceleration elicited by voluntary muscle contractions of minimal duration. J. Appl. Physiol.32, 70–77, 1972.
Brener, J.: A general model of voluntary control applied to the phenomena of learned cardiovascular change.In Obrist, P. A., Black, A. H., Brener, J. and DiCara, L. V. (eds.),Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York, Aldine, 1974.
Brener, J. and Hothersall, D.: Heart rate control under conditions of augmented sensory feedback. Psychophysiology4, 1–6, 1967.
Brener, J. and Hothersall, D.: Paced respiration and heart rate control.In Kamiya, J., Barber, T. X., DiCara, L. V., Miller, N. E., Shapiro, D. and Stoyva, J. (eds),Biofeedback and Self-Control, New York, Aldine, 1971.
Brener, J. and Kleinman, R. A.: Learned control of decreases in systolic blood pressure. Nature226, 1063–1064, 1970.
Brener, J. M. and Kleinman, R. A. and Goesling, W. J.: The effects of different exposures to augmented sensory feedback on the control of heart rate. Psychophysiology5, 510–516, 1969.
Brener, J. and Shanks, E.: The interaction of instructions and feedback in the training of cardiovascular control. In preparation, cited in Brener, J. A general model of voluntary control applied to the phenomena of learned cardiovascular change.In Obrist, P., Black, A. H., Brener, J. and DiCara, L. V. (eds.) Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York, Aldine, 1974.
Bristow, J. D., Brown, E. B., Jr., Cunningham, D. J., Goode, R. C., Howson, M. G. and Sleight, P.: The effects of hypercapnia, hypoxia, and ventilation on the baroreflex regulation of the pulse interval. J. Physiol.216, 281–302, 1971.
Campbell, D. T. and Stanley, J. C.:Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago, Rand McNally, 1963.
Carpenter, T. M., Hoskins, R. G. and Hitchcock, F. A.: Voluntarily induced increases in the rates of certain “involuntary” physiological processes of a human subject. Am. J. Physiol.110, 320–328, 1934.
Carswell, F., Hainsworth, R. and Ledsome, J. R.: The effects of distention of the pulmonary veno-atrial junctions upon peripheral vascular resistance. J. Physiol.207, 1–14, 1970.
Chaplin, J. P.:Dictionary of Psychology. New York, Dell, 1968.
Chase, M. H. and Harper, R. M.: Somatomotor and visceromotor correlates of operantly conditioned 12–14 cycle per second sensorimotor acortical activity. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol.31, 85–92, 1971.
Church, R. M.: Systematic effect of random error in yoked control design. Psychol. Bull.62, 122–131, 1964.
Clarke, N. P., Smith, O. A. and Shearn, D. W.: Topographical representation of vascular smooth muscle of limb in primate motor cortex. Am. J. Physiol.214, 122–129, 1968.
Coote, J. H., Hilton, S. M. and Perez-Gonzalez, J. F.: The reflex nature of the pressor response to muscular exercise. J. Physiol.215, 789–804, 1971.
Coote, J. H. and Perez-Gonzalez, J. F.: The baroreceptor reflex during stimulation of the hypothalamic defense region. J. Physiol.224, 74–74P, 1972.
Crider, A. B., Schwartz, G. E. and Shnidman, S.: On the criteria for instrumental autonomic conditioning: a reply to Katkin and Murray.In Kamiya, J., Barber, T. X., DiCara, L. V., Miller, N. E., Shapiro, D. and Stoyva, J. (eds),Biofeedback and Self-Control, New York, Aldine, 1971.
Daly, M., Hazzledine, J. and Ungar, A.: The reflex effects of alterations in lung volume on systemic vascular resistance in the dog. J. Physiol.188, 331–351, 1967.
Davies, C. T. M. and Neilson, J. M. M.: Sinus arrhythmia in man at rest. J. Appl. Physiol.22, 947–955, 1967.
DeCario, M. D., Proctor, S. and Malloy, T. E.: The effects of false heart rate feedback on self-reports of anxiety and on actual heart rate. Behav. Res. Ther.12, 251–253, 1974.
Deese, J. and Hulse, S.:The Psychology of Learning. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
DiCara, L. V.: Learning in the autonomic nervous system. Sci. Am.222(1), 30–39, 1970.
DiCara, L. V.: Some critical methodological variables in visceral learning.In Obrist, P., Black, A., Brener, J. and DiCara, L. (eds.),Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York, Aldine, 1974.
DiCara, L. V., Braun, J. J. and Pappas, B. A.: Classical conditioning and instrumental learning of cardiac and gastrointestinal responses following removal of neocortex in the rat. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.73, 209–216, 1970.
DiCara, L. V. and Miller, N. E.: Changes in heart rate instrumentally learned by curarized rats as avoidance responses. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.65, 8–12, 1968a.
DiCara, L. V. and Miller, N. E.: Instrumental learning of systolic blood pressure responses by curarized rats: dissociation of cardiac and vascular changes.In Kamiya, J., Barber, T. X., DiCara, L. V., Miller, N.E., Shapiro, D. and Stoyva, J. (eds.),Biofeedback and Self-Control, New York, Aldine, 1971, and in Psychosom. Med.30, 489–494, 1968b.
DiCara, L. V. and Miller, N. E.: Instrumental learning of vasomotor responses by rats: learning to respond differentially in the two ears. Science159, 1485–1488, 1968c.
DiCara, L. V. and Miller, N. E.: Transfer of instrumentally learned heart rate changes from curarized to noncurarized state: implications for a mediational hypothesis. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.68, 159–162, 1969.
DiCara, L. V. and Stone, E. A.: Effect of instrumental heart rate training on rat cardiac and brain catecholamines. Psychosom. Med.32, 359–368, 1970.
DiCara, L. V. and Weiss, J. M.: Effect of heart-rate learning under curare on subsequent noncurarized avoidance learning. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.69, 368–374, 1969.
Djojosugito, A. M., Folkow, B., Kylstra, P. H., Lisander, P. and Tuttle, R. S.: Interaction between hypothalamic defense reaction and baroreceptor reflexes. Proc. Int. Union Physiol. Sci.115, 1968.
Eckberg, D. L., Drobinsky, M. and Braunwald, E.: Defective cardiac parasympathetic control in patients with heart disease. N. Engl. J. Med.285, 877–884, 1971.
Edis, A. J., Donald, D. E. and Shepherd, J. T.: Cardiovascular reflexes from stretch of pulmonary vein-atrial junction in the dog. Circ. Res.27, 1091–1100, 1970.
Elder, S. T., Leftwich, D. A. and Wilkerson, L. A.: The role of systolic-against diastolic-contingent feedback in blood pressure conditioning. Psychol. Rec.24, 171–176, 1974.
Elder, S. T., Ruiz, Z. R., Deabler, H. L. and Dillenkoffer, R. L.: Instrumental conditioning of diastolic blood pressure in essential hypertensive patients. J. Appl. Behav. Anal.6, 377–382 1973.
Engel, B. T.: Operant conditioning of cardiac function: a status report. Psychophysiology9, 161–177, 1972.
Engel, B. T.: Clinical applications of operant conditioning techniques in the control of the cardiac arrhythmias. Semin. Psychiatr.5, 73–78, 1973.
Engel, B. T. and Bleecker, E. R.: Applications of operant conditioning to the control of cardiac arrhythmias.In Obrist, P. A., Black, A. H., Brener, J. and Dicara, L. V. (eds.),Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York, Aldine, 1974.
Engel, B. T. and Chism, R. A.: Effect of increases and decreases in breathing rate on heart rate and finger pulse volume. Psychophysiology4, 83–89, 1967a.
Engel, B. T. and Chism, R. A.: Operant conditioning of heart rate speeding. Psychophysiology3, 418–426, 1967b.
Engel, B. T. and Gottlieb, S. H.: Differential operant conditioning of heart rate in the restrained monkey. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.73, 217–225, 1970.
Engel, B. T. and Hansen, S. P.: Operant conditioning of heart rate slowing. Psychophysiology3, 176–187, 1966.
Engel, B. T. and Melmon, K. L.: Operant conditioning of heart rate in patients with cardiac arrhythmias. Cond. Reflex.3, 130, 1968.
Favill, J. and White, P. D.: Voluntary acceleration of the rate of the heart beat. Heart6, 175–182, 1917.
Fetz, E. E.: Operant conditioning of cortical unit activity. Science163, 955–958 1969.
Fetz, E. E. and Baker, M. A.: Operantly conditioned patterns of precentral unit activity and correlated responses in adjacent cells and lateral muscles. J. Neurophysiol.36, 179–204, 1973.
Fetz, E. E. and Finocchio, D. V.: Operant conditioning of specific patterns of neural and muscular activity. Science174, 431–435, 1971.
Fields, C.: Instrumental conditioning of rat cardiac control systems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.65, 293–299, 1970.
Findley, J. D., Harris, A. H. and Brady, J. V.: Operant conditioning of hypertension in the baboon. Cond. Reflex6, 172–173, 1971.
Findley, J. D., Brady, J. V. and Robinson, W. W.: Continuous cardiovascular monitoring in the baboon during long-term behavioral performances. Commun. Behav. Biol.6, 49–58, 1971.
Findley, J. D., Robinson, W. W. and Gilliam, W. A.: A restraint system for chronic study of the baboon. J. Exp. Anal. Behav.15, 69–71, 1971.
Finley, W. W.: The effect of feedback on the control of cardiac rate. J. Psychol.77, 43–54, 1971.
Forsyth, R. P.: Mechanisms of the Cardiovascular responses to environmental Stressors.In Obrist, P. A., Black, A. H., Brener, J. and DiCara, L. V. (eds.),Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York Aldine, 1974.
Frankenhaeuser, M.: Some aspects of research in physiological psychology.In Levi, L. (ed.),Emotional Stress, New York, Elsevier, 1967.
Frazier, D. T., Taquini, C. and Boyarsky, L. L. Hypothalamic unit responses to increases in arterial blood pressure. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.120, 450, 1965.
Frazier, T. W.: Avoidance conditioning of heart rate in humans. Psychophysiology3, 188–202, 1966.
Freyschuss, U.: Elicitation of heart rate and blood pressure increase on muscular contraction. J. Appl. Physol.28, 758–761, 1970a.
Freyschuss, U.: Cardiovascular adjustment to somatomotor activation. Acta Physiol. Scand.79, Suppl. 342, 1970.
Friesinger, G. C. and Ross, R. S.: Thoracic pain and angina pectoris.In Harvey, A. M., Johns, R. J., Owens, A. H. and Ross, R. S. (eds.),The Principles and Practice of Medicine. New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972.
Gebber, G. L.: Central organization of baroreflexes. Anesthesiology,32, 193–195, 1970.
Gebber, G. L. and Klevans, L. R.: Central nervous system modulation of cardiovascular reflexes. Fed. Proc.31, 1245–1252, 1972.
Gebber, G. L. and Snyder, D. W.: Hypothalamic control of baroreceptor reflexes. Am. J. Physiol.218, 124–131, 1969.
Germana, J.: Central efferent processes and autonomic-behavioral integration. Psychophysiology6, 78–90, 1969.
Ginsberg, S.: The effect of instructions and heart rate perceptibility on cardiac control. Psychophysiology8, 268, 1971.
Gliner, J. A., Horvath, S. M. and Wolfe, R. R.: Operant conditioning of heart rate in curarized rats: hemodynamic changes. Am. J. Physiol.228, 870–874, 1975.
Goesling, W. J. and Brener, J.: Effects of activity and immobility conditioning upon subsequent heart rate conditioning in curarized rats. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.81, 311–317, 1972.
Goldstein, D. S., Fink, D. J. and Metter, D. R.: Cognition of arousal and actual arousal as determinants of emotion. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.21, 41–51, 1972.
Goodman, L. and Gilman, A.The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, New York, Macmilliam, 1970.
Goodwin, G. M., McCloskey, D. I. and Mitchell, J. H.: Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to changes in central command during isometric exercise at constant muscle tension. J. Physiol.226, 173–190, 1972.
Grant, D. A.: Classical and operant conditioning.In Melton, A. (ed.),Categories of Human Learning. New York, Academic, 1964.
Hahn, W. W.: The learning of autonomic responses by curarized animals.In Obrist, P. A., Black, A. H., Brener, J. and DiCara, L. V. (eds.),Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York, Aldine, 1974.
Hamano, K. and Okita, T.: Some experiments on instrumental modification of autonomic responses. Psychologia15, 101–109, 1972.
Harris, A. H., Findley, J. D. and Brady, J. V.: Instrumental conditioning of blood pressure elevations in the baboon. Cond. Reflex6, 10–12, 1971.
Harris, A. H., Gilliam, W. J. and Brady, J. V.: Operant conditioning of heart rate in the baboon. Pavlov. J. Biol. Sci.9, 172–173, 1974.
Harris, A. H., Gilliam, W. J., Findley, J. D. and Brady, J. V.: Instrumental conditioning of large magnitude daily 12-hour blood pressure elevations in the baboon. Science182, 175–177, 1973.
Haynes, S. N.: Application of operant feedback techniques in the control of diastolic blood pressure of essential hypertensives. Dissertation Abstr.32(12-B), 7311, 1972.
Headrick, M. W., Feather, B. W. and Wells, D. T.: Unidirectional and large magnitude heart rate changes with augmented sensory feedback. Psychophysiology8, 132–142, 1971.
Hilton, S. M.: Inhibition of baroreceptor reflexes on hypothalamic stimulation. J. Physiol.165, 56–57P, 1963.
Hilton, S. M. and Spyer, K. M.: The hypothalamic depressor area and the baroreceptor reflex. J. Physiol.200, 107P, 1968.
Hilton, S. M. and Spyer, K. M.: Participation of the anterior hypothalamus in the baroreceptor reflex. J. Physiol.218, 217, 1971.
Hnatiow, M.: Learned control of heart rate and blood pressure. Percept. Mot. Skills33, 219–226, 1971.
Hnatiow, M. and Lang, P. J.: Learned stabilization of cardiac rate.In Kamiya, J., Barber, T. X., DiCara, L. V., Miller, N. E., Shapiro, D. and Stoyva, J. (eds.),Biofeedback and Self-Control, New York, Aldine, 1971.
Hockman, C. H. (ed.):Limbic System Mechanisms and Autonomie Function. Springfield, Charles C Thomas, 1972.
Hockman, C. H., Livingston, K. E. and Talesnik, J.: Supramedullary modulation of autonomic reflexes.In Hockman, C. H. (ed.),Limbic System Mechanisms and Autonomie Function, Springfield, Charles C Thomas, 1972.
Hockman, C. H., Talesnik, J. and Livingston, K. E.: Central nervous system modulation of baroreceptor reflexes. Am. J. Physiol.217, 1681–1689, 1969.
Hollander, A. P. and Bouman, L. N.: Cardiac acceleration in man elicited by a muscle-heart reflex. J. Appl. Physiol.38, 272–278, 1975.
Hothersall, D. and Brener, J.: Operant conditioning of changes in heart rate in curarized rats. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.68, 338–342, 1969.
Howard, J. L., Galosy, R. A., Gaebelein, C. J. and Obrist, P. A.: Some problems in the use of neuromuscular blockade.In Obrist, P. A., Black, A. H., Brener, J. and DiCara, L. V. (eds.),Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York, Aldine, 1974.
Humphreys, P. W. and Joels, N.: The vasomotor component of the carotid sinus baroreceptor reflex in the cat during stimulation of the hypothalamic defense area. J. Physiol.226, 57–78, 1972.
Humphreys, P. W., Joels, N. and McAllen, R. M.: Modification of the reflex response to stimulation of carotid sinus baroreceptors during and following stimultion of the hypothalamic defense area in the cat. J. Physiol.216, 461–482, 1971.
Johns, T. R.: Heart rate control in humans under paced respiration and restricted movement: the effect of instructions and exteroceptive feedback. Paper presented at meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, 1971; unpublished manuscript, 1972.
Kamiya, J., Barber, T. X., DiCara, L. V., Miller, N. E., Shapiro, D. and Stoyva, J. (eds.):Cardiovascular Psychophysiology. New York, Aldine, 1974.
Katkin, E. S. and Murray, E. N.: Instrumental conditioning of autonomically mediated behavior: theoretical and methodological issues. Psychol. Bull.70, 52–68, 1968.
Kappagoda, C. T., Linden, R. J. and Saunders, D. A.: The effect on heart rate of distending the atrial appendages in the dog. J. Physiol.225, 705–719, 1972.
Kappagoda, C. T., Linden, R. J. and Snow, H. M.: Further evidence for right atrial receptors affecting heart rate. J. Physiol.210, 132p, 1970.
Kezdi, P. (ed.):Baroreceptors and Hypertension. Oxford, Pergamon, 1967.
Kimble, G. A.:Hilgard and Marquis’ Conditioning and Learning. New York, Appleton, 1961.
Kimble, G. A. and Perlmutter, L. C.: The problem of volition. Psychol. Rev.77, 361–384, 1970.
Kimmel, H. D.: Instrumental conditioning of autonomically mediated behavior. Psychol. Bull.67, 337–345, 1967.
King, J. T., Jr.: An instance of voluntary acceleration of the pulse. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 303-305, 1920.
Klevans, L. R. and Gebber, G. L.: Facilitatory forebrain influences on cardiac component of baroreceptor reflexes. Am. J. Physiol.219, 1235–1241, 1970.
Konorski, J. and Miller, S.: On two types of conditional reflex. J. Gen. Psychol.16, 264–272, 1937.
Kristt, D. and Engel, B.: Learned control of blood pressure in patients with high blood pressure. Circulation51, 370–378, 1975.
Kylstra, P. H. and Lisander, B.: Differentiated interaction between the hypothalamic defense area and baroreceptor reflexes. Acta Physiol. Scand.78, 376–392, 1970.
Lacey, B. C. and Lacey, J. I.: Studies of heart rate and other bodily processes in sensorimotor behavior.In Obrist, P. A., Black, A. H., Brener, J. and DiCara, L.V. (eds.),Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York, Aldine, 1974.
Lacey, J. I.: Some cardiovascular correlates of sensorimotor behavior: examples of visceral afferent feedback?In Hockman, C. H. (ed.),Limbic System Mechanisms and Autonomic Function, Springfield, Charles C Thomas, 1972.
Lacey, J. I. and Lacey, B. C.: Some autonomic-central nervous system inter-relationships.In Black, P. (ed.),Physiological Correlates of Emotion, New York, Academic Press, 1970.
Lacey, J. I. and Lacey, B. C.: The law of initial value in the longitudinal study of autonomic constitution: reproducibility of autonomic responses and response patterns over a four-year interval. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.98, 1257, 1962.
Lang, P. J., Sroufe, L. A. and Hastings, J. E.: Effects of feedback and instructional set on the control of cardiac rate variability. J. Exp. Psychol.75, 425–431, 1967.
Lang, P. J. and Twentyman, C. T.: Learning to control heart rate: binary vs. analogue feedback. Psychophysiology11, 616–629, 1974.
Levene, H. I., Engel, B. T. and Pearson, J. A.: Differential operant conditioning of heart rate. Psychosom. Med.30, 837–845, 1968.
Levenson, R. W. and Strupp, H. H.: Simultaneous feedback and control of heart rate and respiratory rate. Psychophysiology10, 200, 1973.
Lewy, A. J. and Sciden, L. S.: Operant behavior changes nor-epinephrine metabolism in rat brain. Science175, 454–455, 1972.
Littler, W. A., Honour, A. J., Sleight, P. and Stott, F.D.: Direct arterial pressure and electrocardiogram in unrestricted patients with angina pectoris. Circulation48, 125–134, 1973.
Lloyd, A. J. and Leibrecht, B. C.: Conditioning of a single motor unit. J. Exp. Psychol.88, 391–395, 1971.
Lloyd, T. C., Jr.: Control of systemic vascular resistance by pulmonary and left heart baroreflexes. Am. J. Physiol.222, 1511–1517, 1972.
Lynch, J. J.: Cardiac-somatic relationships in operant and Pavlovian conditioning. Psychophysiology9, 266, 1972.
May, J. R. and Johnson, H. J.: Physiological activation to internally elicited arousal and inhibitory thoughts. J. Abnorm. Psychol.82, 239–245, 1973.
McCloskey, D. I. and Mitchell, J. H.: Reflex cardiovascular and respiratory responses originating in exercising muscle. J. Physiol.224, 173–186, 1972.
McFarland, R. A.: Heart rate perception and heart rate control. Psychophysiology12, 402–405, 1975.
McIntosh, H. D.: Circulatory changes produced by the Valsalva maneuver in normal subjects, patients with mitral stenosis, and autonomic nervous system alterations. Circulation9, 511–520, 1954.
Meyer-Osterkamp, S., Grusche, A. and Cohen, R.: An investigation of operant control of heart rate. Z. Klin. Psychol.3, 213–231, 1972.
Miller, N. E.: Learning of visceral and glandular responses. Science163, 434–444, 1969.
Miller, N. E. and Banuazizi, A.: Instrumental learning by curarized rats of a specific visceral response, intestinal or cardiac. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.65, 1–7, 1968.
Miller, N. E. and DiCara, L.: Instrumental learning of heart-rate changes in curarized rats: shaping, and specificity to discriminative stimulus. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.63, 12–19, 1967.
Miller, N. E. and DiCara, L. V.: Instrumental learning of urine formation by rats; changes in renal blood flow. Am. J. Physiol.215, 677–683, 1968.
Miller, N. E. and DiCara, L. V.: Heart-rate learning in the noncurarized state, transfer to the curarized state, and subsequent retraining in the non-curarized state. Physiol. Behav.4, 621–624, 1969a.
Miller, N. E. and DiCara, L. V.: Long term retention of instrumentally learned heart rate changes in the curarized rat. Commun. Behav. Biol.A-2, 19–23, 1969.
Miller, N. E. and Dworkin, B. R.: Visceral learning: recent difficulties with curarized rats and significant problems for human research.In Obrist, P. A., Black A. H., Brener, J. and DiCara, L. V. (eds.),Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York, Aldine, 1974.
Mountcastle, V. (ed.):Medical Physiology, St. Louis, C. V. Mosby, 1968.
Mowrer, O. H.: Preparatory set (expectancy)-a determinant in motivation and learning. Psychol. Rev.45, 62–91, 1938.
Mowrer, O. H.:Learning Theory and Behavior, New York, Wiley, 1960.
Murray, E. N. and Katkin, E. S.: Comment on two recent reports of heart rate conditioning. Psychophysiology5, 192–195, 1968.
Obrist, P.: The cardiac-somatic relationship: some reformulations. Psychophysiology6, 569–587, 1970.
Obrist, P. A., Black, A. H., Brener, J. and DiCara, L.V. (eds.):Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York, Aldine, 1974.
Obrist, P. A., Howard, J. L., Lawler, J. E., Galosy, R.A., Meyers, K. A. and Gaebelein, C. J.: The cardiac-somatic interaction.In Obrist, P. A., Black, A. H., Brener, J. and DiCara, L. V. (eds.),Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, New York, Aldine, 1974.
Obrist, P. A. and Webb, R. A.: Heart rate during conditioning in dogs: relationship to somato-motor activity. Psychophysiology4, 7–34, 1967.
Ogden, E. and Shock, E. W.: Voluntary hypercirculation. Am. J. Med. Sci.198, 329–342, 1939.
Olds, J.: Operant conditioning of single unit responses. Proc. Int. Congress Physiol. Tokyo, 372-380, 1965.
Pappas, B. A., DiCara, L. V. and Miller, N. E.: Learning of blood pressure responses in the noncurarized rat: transfer to the curarized state. Physiol. Behav.5, 722–725, 1970.
Patel, C.: Yoga and biofeedback in the management of hypertension. Lancet,7837(2), 1053–1055, 1973.
Patel C.: Twelve-month followup of yoga and biofeedback in the managment of hypertension Lancet7898 (1), 62–64, 1975.
Pease, E. A.: Voluntary control of the heart. Boston Med. Surg. J.120, 525–529, 1889.
Penfield, W.: The cerebral cortex in man. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatr.40, 417–442, 1938.
Perez-Cruet, J.: Operant conditioning of Wenckebach periods in the rhesus monkey. Psychophysiology10, 200, 1973.
Perez-Gonzalez, J. R. and Coote, J. H.: Activity of muscle afferents and reflex circulatory responses to exercise. Am. J. Physiol.223, 138–143, 1972.
Peters, M.: Instrumental conditioning in the autonomic nervous system: some questions. Psychol. Rep.34, 12–14, 1974.
Petro, J. A., Hollander, A. P. and Bouman, L. N.: Instantaneous cardiac acceleration in man by voluntary muscle contraction. J. Appl. Physiol.29, 794–798, 1970.
Pickering, T. and Gorham, G.: Learned heart rate control by a patient with a ventricular parasystolic rhythm. Lancet7901(1), 252–253, 1975.
Plumlee, L. A.: Operant conditioning of blood pressure increases and decreases in the monkey. Psychophysiology4, 507–508, 1968.
Plumlee, L. A.: Operant conditioning of increases in blood pressure.In Kamiya, J., Barber, T. X., DiCara, L. V., Miller, N. E., Shapiro, D. and Stoyva, J. (eds.),Biofeedback and Self-Control, New York, Aldine, 1971.
Porges, S. W.: Heart rate variability as a predictor of attentional performance. Psychophysiology8, 272–273, 1971.
Ray, W. J.: The relationship of locus of control, self-report measures, and feedback to the voluntary control of heart rate. Psychophysiology11, 527–534, 1974.
Ray, W. and Strupp, H.: Locus of control and the voluntary control of heart rate. Psychophysiology9, 270–271, 1972.
Redwood, D. R., Rosing, D. R. and Epstein, S. E.: Circulatory and symptomatic effects of physical training in patients with coronary artery disease and angina pectoris, N. Engl. J. Med.286, 959–965, 1972.
Rescorla, R. A. and Solomon, R. L.: Two-process learning theory. Psychol. Rev.74, 151–182, 1967.
Robinson, B. F.: Relation of heart rate and systolic blood pressure to the onset of pain in angina pectoris. Circulation35, 1073–1083, 1967.
Rushmer, R. F. and Smith, O. A.: Cardiac control. Physiol. Rev.39, 41–68, 1959.
Sagawa, K.: Overall circulatory regulation. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 295-330, 1969.
Schachter, S. and Singer, J.: Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychol. Rev.69, 379–399, 1962.
Schwartz, G. E.: Operant conditioning of human cardiovascular integration and differentiation. Psychophysiology8, 245, 1971a.
Schwartz, G. E.: Cardiac responses to self-induced thoughts. Psychophysiology8, 462–467, 1971b.
Schwartz, G. E. and Higgins, J. D.: Cardiac activity preparatory to overt and covert behavior. Science173, 1144–1146, 1971.
Schwartz, G., Shapiro, D. and Tursky, B.: Self-control of patterns of human diastolic blood pressure and heart rate through feedback and reward. Psychophysiology9, 270, 1972.
Schwartz, G. E., Shapiro, D. and Tursky, B.: Learned control of cardiovascular integration in man through operant conditioning. Psychosom. Med.33, 57–62, 1971.
Shapiro, D., Schwartz, G. and Tursky, B.: Control of diastolic blood pressure in man by feedback and reinforcement. Psychophysiology8, 262, 1971.
Shapiro, D., Schwartz, G. and Tursky, B.: Control of diastolic blood pressure in man by feedback and reinforcement. Psychophysiology9, 296–304, 1972.
Shapiro, D., Tursky, B., Gershon, E. and Stern, M.: Effects of feedback and reinforcement on the control of human systolic blood pressures. Science163, 588–589, 1969.
Shapiro, D., Tursky, B. and Schwartz, G. Differentiation of heart rate and systolic blood pressure in man by operant conditioning. Psychosom. Med.32 417–423, 1970a.
Shapiro, D., Tursky, B. and Schwartz, G.: Control of blood pressure in man by operant conditioning. Circ. Res.26–27, Suppl. 1, 27–32, 1970.
Sharpey-Schafer, E. P.: Effect of respiratory acts on the circulation.In Hamilton, W. F. (ed.),Handbook of Physiology,2(3), 1875–1886, 1965 Washington: American Physiological Society.
Shearn, D.: Operant conditioning of heart rate. Science137, 530–531, 1962.
Sherrington, C. S.:The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1906.
Shinkman, P. G., Bruce, C. J. and Pfingst, B. E.: Operant conditioning of single-unit response patterns in visual cortex. Science,184, 1194–1196, 1974.
Skinner, B. F.:The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis, New York, Appleton, 1938.
Skinner, B. F.:Science and Human Behavior, New York, Macmillan, 1953.
Slaughter, J., Hahn, W. and Rinaldi, P.: Instrumental conditioning of heart rate in the curarized rat with varied amounts of pretraining. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.72, 356–359, 1970.
Smyth, H. S., Sleight, P. and Pickering, G. W.: Reflex regulation of arterial pressure during sleep in man: a quantitative method of assessing baroreflex sensitivity. Circ. Res.24, 109–121, 1969.
Snyder, C. and Noble, M.: Operant conditioning of vasoconstriction. J. Exp. Psychoj.77, 263–268, 1968.
Spyer, K. M.: Barosensitive neurones in the anterior hypothalamus of the cat. J. Physiol.224, 245–257, 1972.
Sroufe, L. A.: Learned stabilization of cardiac rate with respiration experimentally controlled. J. Exp. Psychol.81, 391–393, 1969.
Sroufe, L. A.: Effects of depth and rate of breathing on heart rate and heart rate variability. Psychophysiology8, 648–655, 1971.
Stephens, J., Harris, A. and Brady, J.: Large magnitude heart rate changes in subjects instructed to change their heart rates and given exteroceptive feedback. Psychophysiology9, 283–285, 1972.
Stephens, J., Harris, A. H., Brady, J. V. and Shaffer, J. W.: Psychological and physiological variables associated with large magnitude voluntary heart rate changes. Psychophysiology12, 381–387, 1975.
Stern, R. M. Botto, R. W. and Herrick, C. D.: Behavioral and physiological effects of false heart rate feedback: a replication and extension. Psychophysiology9, 21–29, 1972.
Stern, R. M. and Pavlovski, R. P.: Operant conditioning of vasoconstriction: A verification. J. Exp. Psychol.102, 330–332, 1974.
Surwit, R. S.: Biofeedback: a possible treatment for Raynaud’s disease. Semin. Psychiatr.5, 123–130, 1973.
Taylor, N.B. and Cameron, H. G.: Voluntary acceleration of the heart. Am. J. Physiol.61, 385–398, 1922.
Thomas, M. R. and Calaresu, F. R.: Responses of single units in the medial hypothalamus to electrical stimulation of the carotid sinus nerve in the cat. Brain Res.44, 49–62, 1972.
Thornton, E. W. and Van-Toller, C.: Operant conditioning of heart-rate changes in the functionally decorticate curarized rat. Physiol. Behav.10, 983–988, 1973a.
Thornton, M. R. and Van-Toller, C.: Effect of immuno-sympathectomy on operant heart rate conditioning in the curarized rat. Physiol. Behav.10, 197–202, 1973.
Trowill, J.: Instrumental conditioning of heart rate in the curarized rat. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.63, 7–11, 1967.
Troyer, W. G., Twentyman, C. T., Gatchel, R. J. and Lang, P. J.: Learned control of heart rate in patients with ischemic heart disease. Psychophysiology10, 213, 1973.
Tuke, D. H.:Illustrations of the Influence of the Mind upon the Body in Health and Disease, Designed to Elucidate the Action of the Imagination. Philadelphia, Lea and Febiger, 1884.
Valentinuzzi, M. E., Baker, L. E. and Powell, T.: The heart rate response to the Valsalva Manoevre. Med. Biol. Eng.12, 817–822, 1974.
Varma, S., Johnson, S. D., Sherman, D. E. and Youmans, M. D.: Mechanisms of inhibition of heart rate by phenylephrine. Circ. Res.8, 1182–1186, 1960.
Volow, M. and Hein, P.: Bidirectional operant conditioning of peripheral vasomotor responses with augmented feedback and prolonged training. Psychophysiology9, 271, 1972.
Weiner, N.:Cybernetics. Cambridge, M.I.T., 1961.
Weiss, T. and Engel, B.: Operant conditioning of heart rate in patients with premature ventricular contractions. Psychosom. Med.33, 301–321, 1971.
Wenckebach, K. F. and Winterberg, H.:Die unregelmassige Hertztatigkeit. Leipzig, Engelmann, 1927.
Wenger, M. A., Bagchi, B. K. and Anand, B. K.: Experiments in India on “voluntary” control of the heart and pulse. Circulation24, 1319–1325, 1960.
West, H. F. and Savage, W. E.: Voluntary acceleration of the heart beat. Arch. Intern. Med.22, 290–295, 1918.
Wyler, A. R. and Fetz, E. E.: Behavioral control of firing patterns of normal and abnormal neurons in chronic epileptic cortex. Exp. Neurol.42, 448–464, 1974.
Additional References
Blackwell, B.: Relation of heart rate control to heartbeat perception. Biofeedback Self Regul.2, 387–392, 1977.
Blanchard, E. B., Haynes, H. R., Kallman, M. D. and Harkey, L.: A comparison of direct blood pressure feedback and electromyographic feedback on the blood pressure of normotensives. Biofeedback Self Regul.1, 445–451, 1976.
Bouchard, M. A. and Granger, L.: The role of instructions versus instructions plus feedback in voluntary heart rate slowing. Psychophysiology14, 475–482, 1977.
Burgoyne, L., Pote, R. and Freedman, N.: Conditioned cardiac acceleration under spreading cortical depression. Psychonom. Sci.9, 417–418, 1967.
Carroll, D.: Cardiac perception and cardiac control. A review. Biofeedback Self Regul.2, 349–369, 1977.
Colgan, M.: Effects of binary and proportional feedback on bidirectional control of heart rate. Psychophysiology14, 187–191, 1977.
Eissenberg, E. and Brener, J.: intermittent positive pressure and the curarized rat: implications for cardiovascular conditioning. Physiol. Behav.16, 735–743, 1976.
Elder, S. T., Welsh, D. M., Longacre, A., Jr. and MacAfee, R.: Acquisition, discriminative stimulus control, and retention of increases/decreases in blood pressure of normotensive human subjects. J. Appl. Behav. Anal.10, 381–390, 1977.
Frankel, B. L., Patel, D. J., Horwitz, D., Friedewald, W. T. and Gaardner, K. R.: Treatment of hypertension with biofeedback and relaxation techniques. Psychosom. Med.40, 1978.
Gaebelein, C. J., Howard, J. L., Galosy, R. A. and Obrist, P. A.: Classical aversive conditioning of heart rate in curarized rats at different blood gas levels. Pavlov. J. Biol. Sci.11, 76–85, 1976.
Goldstein, D. S., Harris, A. H. and Brady, J. V.: Sympathetic adrenergic blockade effects upon operantly conditioned blood pressure elevations in baboons. Biofeedback Self Regul.2, 93–105, 1977a.
Goldstein, D. S., Harris, A. H. and Brady, J. V.: Baroreflex sensitivity during operant blood pressure conditioning. Biofeedback Self Regul.2, 127–138, 1977b.
Goldstein, D. S., Ross, R. S. and Brady, J. V.: Biofeedback heart rate training during exercise. Biofeedback Self Regul.2, 107–125, 1977.
Holmes, D. S., Frost, R. O. and Bennett, D. H.: Influence of adaptation period length on the ability of humans to increase and decrease heart rate with instructions and biofeedback. Behav. Biol.20, 261–269, 1977.
Johnston, D.: Feedback and instructional effects in the voluntary control of digital pulse amplitude. Biol. Psychol.5, 159–171, 1977.
Johnston, D.: Criterion level and instructional effects in the voluntary control of heart rate. Biol. Psychol.4, 1–17, 1976.
Levenson, R. W.: Feedback effects and respiratory involvement in voluntary control of heart rate. Psychophysiology13, 108–114, 1976.
Lott, G. G. and Gatchel, R. J.: A multi-response analysis of learned heart rate control. Psychophysiology15, 264, 1978.
Manuck, S. B.: The voluntary control of heart rate under differential somatic restraint. Biofeedback Self Regul.1, 273–284, 1976.
Manuck, S. B., Levenson, R. W., Hinrichsen, J. J. and Gryll, S. L.: Role of feedback in voluntary control of heart rate. Percept. Mot. Skills40, 747–752, 1975.
McCanne, T. R. and Sandman, C. A.: Human operant heart rate conditioning: the importance of individual differences. Psychol. Bull.83, 587–601, 1976.
Middaugh, S., Eissenberg, E. and Brener, J.: The effect of artificial ventilation on cardiovascular status and on heart rate conditioning in the curarized rat. Psychophysiology12, 520–526, 1975.
Miller, N. E.: Biofeedback and visceral learning. Annu. Rev. Psychol.29, 373–404, 1978.
Newlin, D. and Levenson, R. W.: Efficacy of pattern-feedback for the dissociation of heart rate and respiration rate. Psychophysiology15, 286, 1978.
Patel, C. H. and North, W. R. S.: Randomized controlled trial of yoga and biofeedback in management of hypertension. Lancet2, 93–95, 1975.
Patel, C. H., Frankel, B. L., Horwitz, D. and Mott, D. E.: A control procedure for studies of blood pressure feedback in hypertension. Cardiovasc. Med.3, 627–630, 1978.
Pickering, T. G. and Miller, N. E.: Learned voluntary control of heart rate and rhythm in two subjects with premature ventricular contractions. Br. Heart J.39, 152–159, 1977.
Surwit, R. S., Hager, J. L. and Feldman, T.: The role of feedback in voluntary control of blood pressure in instructed subjects. J. Appl. Behav. Anal.10, 625–631, 1977.
Surwit, R. S., Shapiro, D. S. and Good, M. I.: Comparison of cardiovascular biofeedback, neuromuscular biofeedback, and mediation in the treatment of borderline essential hypertension. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol.46, 252–263, 1978.
Vandercar, D. H., Feldstein, M. A. and Solomon, H.: Instrumental conditioning of human heart rate during free and controlled respiration. Biol. Psychol.5, 221–231, 1977.
Weiss, T.: Biofeedback training for cardiovascular dysfunctions. Med. Clin. North Am.61, 913–928, 1977.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Formerly in M.D., Ph.D. Program, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Goldstein, D.S. Instrumental cardiovascular conditioning: A review. Pav. J. Biol. Sci. 14, 108–127 (1979). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03001827
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03001827