Abstract
Realization that forest decline (Waldsterben) has become an ecological crisis throughout the developed world has resulted in massive research efforts to determine the causes of declines. It is now recognized that no single causal factor is responsible, but that there are a variety of anthropogenic causal factor complexes interacting with natural events and processes that, together, induce stresses in forests that culminate in declines of individual plants and of ecosystems.
It is the thesis of this article that forest declines involve all biotic and abiotic facets and parameters of forested ecosystems and that the declines are themselves new causal factor complexes that continue to affect the stability of forested ecosystems independently of the initial causal factor complexes. Lacking direct field or laboratory studies on these cascades of causes and effects, this article attempts to utilize the growing body of information on plant physiological ecology to provide a heuristic framework for evaluating long-term forest declines.
Abstrakt
Die Erkenntnis, daß das Waldsterben zu einer ökologischen Krise in der gesamten entwickelten Welt geworden ist, hat zu massiven Forschungsanstrengungen nach den Ursachen geführt. Es ist mittlerweile anerkannt, daß nicht ein einzelner verursachender Umstand verantwortlich ist, sondern, daß es sich um eine Vielzahl anthropogener Faktoren im Wechselspiel mit natürlichen Vorgängen handelt; die im Zusammenwirken Stresse in den Wäldern hervorrufen und im Niedergang einzelner Pflanzen oder ganzer Waldökosysteme ihren Ausdruck finden.
Dieser Artikel unterstüzt die These, daß das Waldsterben alle biotischen und abiotischen Facetten und Parameter eines Waldökosystems einbezieht und daß die Zerfallsprozesse selbst neue Ursachenkomplexe darstellen, die unabhängig von den ursprünglichen Ursachen, fortgesetzt die Stabilität der Waldökosysteme angreifen. Ohne direkte Feldoder Laboruntersuchungen dieser Kaskaden von Ursache und Wirkung versucht dieser Artikel die ständig wachsende Masse der Information über Pflanzen-ökologie und -physiologie zu nutzen, um ein heuristiches Gitternetz für die Auswertung der Langzeiteffekte des Waldsterbens aufzustellen.
Similar content being viewed by others
Literature Cited
Abrahamsen, G. 1983. Effects of lime and artificial rain on the enchytraeid (Oligochaeta) fauna in coniferous forest. Holarct. Ecol.6: 247–254.
—. 1984. Effects of acidic deposition on forest soils and vegetation. Philos. Trans.B305: 369–382.
—,R. Horntvedt &B. Tviete. 1977. Impacts of acid precipitation on coniferous ecosystems. Water Air Soil Poll.8: 57–73.
Albrektson, A., A. Aronsson &C. O. Tamm. 1977. The effect of forest fertilization and nutrient cycling in the forest ecosystem. Silva Fenn.11: 233–239.
Alexander, M. 1980. Effects of acidity on microorganisms and microbial processes in soil. Pages 363–374in T. C. Hutchinson & M. Havas (eds.), Effects of acid precipitation on terrestrial ecosystems. Plenum Press, New York.
Allen, L. H., H. W. Gausman &W. A. Allen. 1975. Solar ultraviolet radiation in terrestrial plant communities. J. Environ. Qual.4: 285–294.
Anderson, H. W., M. D. Hoover & K. G. Reinhart. 1976. Forests and water. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Tech. Rpt. PSW-18, Berkeley, California.
Anderson, J. E. &S. J. McNaughton. 1973. Effects of low soil temperature on transpiration, photosynthesis, leaf relative water content, and growth among elevationally diverse plant populations. Ecology54: 1220–1233.
Anderson, M. C. 1964. Studies of the woodland light climate. II. Seasonal variation in the light climate. J. Ecol.52: 643–663.
—. 1966. Stand structure and light penetration. II. A theoretical analysis. J. Appl. Ecol.3: 41–54.
Anderson, R. C., O. L. Loucks &A. M. Swain. 1969. Herbaceous response to canopy cover, light intensity and throughfall precipitation in coniferous forests. Ecology50: 255–263.
Andresen, A. M., A. H. Johnson &T. G. Siccama. 1980. Levels of lead, copper and zinc in the forest floor in the northeast United States. J. Environ. Qual.9: 293–296.
Andrews, I. M. 1984. The influence of acid rain on mycorrhizae: The roles of nitrate and sulfate and indoleacetic acid in the development ofPisolithus tinctorius onPinus taeda L. Diss. Abstr. Int.B 44: 3609.
Anonymous. 1983. Waldsterben durch Luftverschmutzung. Bayer. Staatsminst. Ern. Landw. For., München.
Antonovics, J., A. D. Bradshaw &R. G. Turner. 1971. Heavy metal tolerance in plants. Advances Ecol. Res.7: 1–85.
Arndt, U. 1985. Ozon als möglichen Verursacher von Waldschäden. Pages 195–212in G. v. Kortzfleisch (ed.), Waldschäden. Theorie und Praxis auf der Suche nach Antworten. R. Oldenbourg, München.
Aronsson, A. 1980. Frost hardiness in Scots pine (Pinus silvestris L.). II. Hardiness during winter and spring in young trees of different mineral nutrient status. Stud. Forest. Suec.155: 1–27.
Atzet, T. &R. H. Waring. 1970. Selective filtering of light by coniferous forests and minimum light energy requirements for regeneration. Canad. J. Bot.48: 2163–2167.
Baath, E., B. Berg, U. Lohm, B. Lundgren, H. Lundqvist, T. Rosswall, B. Soderstrom &A. Wiren. 1980. Soil organisms and litter decomposition in a Scots pine forest—Effect of experimental acidification. Pages 375–380in T. C. Hutchinson & M. Havas (eds.), Effects of acid precipitation on terrestrial ecosystem. Plenum Press, New York.
Bach, W. 1985. Forest dieback: Extent of damage and control strategies. Experientia41: 1095–1104.
Bache, B. W. 1984. Soil-water interactions. Philos. Trans.B305: 393–407.
Baker, J., D. Hocking &M. Nyborg. 1977. Acidity of open and intercepted precipitation in forests and effects on forest soils in Alberta, Canada. Water Air Soil Poll.7: 449–460.
Baldwin, J. H. 1985. Acid rain: A global perspective. Environ. Profess.7: 221–231.
Banfleld, W. M. 1967. Significance of water deficiency in the etiology of maple decline. Phytopathology57: 338–341.
Barr, P. M. 1930. The effect of soil moisture on the establishment of spruce reproduction in British Columbia. Bull. Yale Univ. School Forest. 26. New Haven, Connecticut.
Bauch, J. 1983. Biological alteration in the stem and root of fir and spruce due to pollution influences. Pages 377–386in B. Ulrich & J. Pankrath (eds.), Effects of accumulation of air pollutants in forest ecosystems. Reidel, Hingham, Massachusetts.
— &W. Schröder. 1982. Zellulärer Nachweis einiger Elemente in den Feinwurzeln gesunder und erkrankten Tannen (Abies alba Mill.) und Fichten (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). Forstwiss. Centralbl.101: 285–294.
Baumgarten, A. 1956. Untersuchungen über den Wärme and Wasserhaushalt eines jungen Waldes. Ber. Deutsch. Wetterdienste5: 4–53.
Bazzaz, F. A. 1983. Characteristics of populations in relation to disturbances in natural and man-modified ecosystems. Pages 259–275in H. A. Mooney & M. Godron (eds.), Disturbance and ecosystems. Components of response. Springer, Berlin.
—,R. W. Carlson &G. L. Rolfe. 1974. The effects of heavy metals on plants. Part I. Inhibition of gas exchange in sunflower by Pb, Cd, Ni and Tl. Environ. Poll.7: 241–246.
Beardsley, A., M. J. Vagg, P. H. T. Bickert, &B. F. Sanson. 1978. Use of the field vole (M. agrestis) for monitoring potentially harmful elements in the environment. Environ. Poll.16: 65–71.
Becker, A. 1983. Untersuchungen zur Verjüngungsfähigkeit der Buche in bodensauren Buchenwald-Ökosystemen. Forst Holzw.38: 154–161.
Beese, F. &A. Waraghai. 1985. Ionenstatus und Säure-Neutralisationsverhalt von Buchenblättern. Allg. Forstz.43: 1164–1166.
Benecke, P. &R. Mayer. 1971. Aspects of soil water behaviour as related to beech and spruce stands—Some results of the water balance investigations. Pages 153–163in H. Ellenberg (ed.), Integrated experimental ecology. Springer, Berlin.
Berndt, H. W. &W. B. Fowler. 1969. Rime and hoarfrost in upperslope forests of eastern Washington. J. Forest.67: 92–95.
Bewley, R. J. F. &R. Campbell. 1983. Effects of combinations of simulated acid rain and cadmium or zinc on microbial activity in soil. Environ. Res.31: 332–339.
Bhuyia, M. R. H. &A. H. Cornfield. 1974. Incubation study on effect of pH on nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in soils treated with 1000 ppm lead and zinc as oxides. Environ. Poll.7: 161–164.
Bjorkman, E. 1949. Ecological significance of ectotropic mycorrhizal association of forest trees. Svensk. Bot. Tidskr.42: 1–223.
Blaschke, H. 1981. Veränderungen bei Feinwurzelentwicklung in Weisstannenbeständen. Forstwiss. Centralbl.100: 190–195.
—,U. Brehmer &H. Schwarz. 1985. Wurzelschaden und Waldsterben. Zur Bestimmung morphometrichescher Kenngrössen von Feinwurzelsystemen mit dem IBAS—Erste Ergebnisse. Forstwiss. Centralbl.104: 199–205.
Bohn, H., B. McNeal &G. O’Connor. 1986. Soil chemistry, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Bollag, J. M. &W. Barahasz. 1979. Effect of heavy metals on the denitrification process in soil. J. Environ. Qual.8: 196–201.
Bormann, F. H. 1983. Factors confounding evaluation of air pollution stress on forests: Pollution input and ecosystem complexity. Symposium, Acid Deposition: Challenge for Europe. Karlsruhe, West Germany.
— &G. E. Likens. 1979. Pattern and process in a forested ecosystem. Springer, New York.
Borner, H. 1960. Liberation of organic substances from higher plants and their role in the soil sickness problem. Bot. Rev.26: 393–424.
Bosch, C. &E. Pfannkuch. 1983. Über die Erkrankung der Fichte (Picea abies Karst.) in der Hochlagen des Bayerischen Waldes. Forstwiss. Centralbl.102: 167–181.
Bragg, R. J. 1982. Interaction ofScleroderris canker disease of red pine with acid rain. Thesis. SUNY Coll. Environ. Sci. Forest., Syracuse, New York.
Brasseur, F. &J. R. DeSloover. 1973. L’extinction de l’irradience et de l’éclairement dans deux peuplements forestiérs de Haut Ardenne. Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belgique106: 219–236.
Braun, H. J. &J. J. Sauter. 1983. Unterschiedliche Symptome des “Waldsterbens” im Schwarzwald—Mögliche Kausalketten und Basis-Ursachen. Allg. Forstz.38: 656–660.
Bray, J. R. 1956. Gap phase replacement in a maple-basswood forest. Ecology37: 598–600
Breeman, N. van, P. A. Borroughs, E. J. Velthorst, H. F. v. Dobben, T. deWitt, T. B. Ridder &H. F. R. Reijnders. 1982. Soil acidification from atmospheric ammonium sulphate in forest canopy throughfall. Nature299: 548–550.
Brewer, R. &P. G. Merritt. 1978. Windthrow and tree replacement in a climax beechmaple forest. Oikos30: 149–152.
Bruck, R. I. 1984. Decline of boreal ecosystems in central Europe and the southern Appalachian mountains. Tappi Proc. Pages 159–163.
Buotron, C. &R. Delmas. 1980. Historical record of global atmospheric pollution revealed in polar ice sheets. Ambio9: 210–215.
Burns, G. P. & W. E. White. 1930. A study of natural reproduction in Vermont forests. Vermont Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 311.
Caldwell, M. M. 1981. Plant responses to solar ultraviolet radiation. Pages 170–197in O. L. Lange, P. S. Nobel, C. B. Osmond & H. Ziegler (eds.), Physiological plant ecology. I. Responses to the physical environment. Springer, Berlin.
Carter, G. A. &W. K. Smith. 1985. Influence of shoot structure on light interception and photosynthesis in conifers. Pl. Physiol.79: 1038–1043.
Chang, F. H. &M. Alexander. 1984. Effects of simulated acid precipitation on decomposition and leaching of organic carbon in forest soils. Soil Sci.138: 226–234.
— &F. E. Broadbent. 1981. Influence of trace metals on carbon dioxide evolution from a Yolo soil. Soil Sci.132: 416–421.
Charley, J. L. &B. N. Richards. 1983. Nutrient allocation in plant communities: Mineral cycling in terrestrial ecosystems. Pages 6–15 in O. L. Lange, P. S. Nobel, C. B. Osmond & H. Ziegler (eds.), Physiological plant ecology. IV. Ecosystem processes: Mineral cycling, productivity and man’s influence. Springer, Berlin.
Christersson, L. 1972. The transpiration rate of unhardened, hardened and dehardened seedlings of spruce and pine. Physiol. Pl.26: 258–263.
Cole, D. W. &M. Rapp. 1981. Element cycling in forested ecosystems. Pages 341–409in D. E. Reichte (ed.), Dynamic properties of forested ecosystems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Coleman, D. C. 1983. The impacts of acid deposition on soil biota and C cycling. Environ. Exp. Bot.23: 225–233.
Colhoun, J. 1978. Predisposition by the environment. Chapter 4in J. Horsfall & E. B. Cowling (eds.), Plant disease. An advanced treatise. How pathogens induce disease. Academic Press, New York.
Coughtrey, P. J., C. H. Jones, M. H. Martin &S. W. Shales. 1979. Litter accumulation in woodlands contaminated by Pb, Zn, Cd and Cu. Oecologia39: 51–60.
Covello, V. T., J. L. Mumpower, P. J. M. Sallen &V. R. R. Uppuluri. 1985. Environmental impact assessment, technology assessment, and risk analysis. Springer, Berlin.
Cowan, J. R. 1965. Transport of water in the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum. J. Appl. Ecol.2: 221–239.
Cowling, E. B. 1982. Acid precipitation in historical perspective. Environ. Sci. Tech.16: 110–123.
Crandall, D. L. 1958. Ground vegetation patterns in the spruce-fir area of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Ecol. Monogr.28: 337–360.
Crawford, H. S. & R. W. Titterington. 1979. Effect of silvicultural practices on bird communities in upland spruce-fir stands. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rpt NC-51. St. Paul, Minnesota.
Cronan, C. S. 1980. Controls on leaching from coniferous forest floor microcosms. Pl. & Soil56: 301–322.
— &W. A. Reiners. 1983. Canopy processing of acidic precipitation by coniferous and hardwood forests in New England. Oecologia59: 216–223.
Cumming, J. R., R. T. Eckert, &L. S. Evans. 1985. Effect of aluminum on potassium uptake by red spruce seedlings. Canad. J. Bot.63: 1099–1103.
Curry, J. R. &T. W. Church. 1952. Observations on winter drying of conifers in the Adirondacks. J. Forest.50: 114–116.
Curtis, J. T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin.
Cutler, K. 1986. Effects of acidity and metal ions on red spruce seedling root growth. Master’s Thesis. Botany Dept., University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont.
Daubenmire, R. F. 1974. Plants and environment: A textbook of plant autecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Davis, D. D. & H. D. Gerhold. 1976. Selection of trees for tolerance to air pollutants. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rpt. NE-22-61-66, Upper Darby, Pennsylvania.
— &F. A. Wood. 1972. The relative susceptibility of eighteen coniferous species to ozone. Phytopathology62: 14–19.
Davis, G. & A. C. Hart. 1961. Effect of seedbed preparation on natural reproduction of spruce and hemlock under dense shade. U.S. Dept. Agric. Northeast. Forest Exp. Stat. Paper 160. Upper Darby, Pennsylvania.
Davis, J. H. 1930. Vegetation of the Black Mountains of North Carolina: An ecological study. J. Elisha Mitchell Soc.45: 291–318.
Deans, J. D. 1979. Fluctuations of the soil environment and fine root growth in a young Sitka spruce plantation. Pl. & Soil52: 195–208.
deJong, L. E. D. D. 1971. Tolerance ofAzotobacter for metallic and nonmetallic ions. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek J. Microbiol.37: 119–124.
Delmas, R. J., A. Aristarian & M. Legrand. 1980. Acidity of antarctic snow: A natural reference level for acid rain. Pages 104–105in D. Drablos & A. Tollen (eds.), Ecological impact of acid precipitation. Oslo.
DelMoral, R. &R. G. Cates. 1971. Allelopathic potential of the dominant vegetation of western Washington. Ecology7: 827–853.
— &C. A. Clampitt &D. M. Wood. 1985. Does interference cause niche differentiation? Evidence from subalpine plant communities. Amer. J. Bot.72: 1891–1901.
Dixon, R. K., G. M. Wright, G. T. Behrns, R. O. Teskey &T. M. Hinchley. 1980. Water deficits and root growth of ectomycorrhizal white oak seedlings. Canad. J. Forest Res.10: 545–548.
Drew, A. P. &E. J. Alyanak. 1981. Summer drought effects on the growth of mature balsam fir trees. Michigan Bot.20: 105–110.
Eaton, J. S., G. E. Likens &F. H. Bormann. 1973. Throughfall and stemflow chemistry in a northern hardwood forest. J. Ecol.61: 495–508.
Eckstein, D., R. W. Aniol &J. Bauch. 1983. Dendroklimatologische Untersuchungen zum Tannensterben. Eur. J. Forest Pathol.13: 279–288.
Economic Commission for Europe. 1984. Effects of acidifying depositions and related pollutants on forest ecosystems. United Nations Economic and Social Council Rpt. EB Air/WG 1/R 4/Rev 1, Geneva, Switzerland.
Edwards, C. A., D. E. Reichle &D. A. Crossley. 1970. The role of soil invertebrates in turnover of organic matter and nutrients. Pages 147–158in D. E. Reichle (ed.), Analysis of temperate forest ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Elstner, E. F., W. Osswald &R. J. Youngman. 1985. Basic mechanisms of pigment bleaching and loss of structural resistance in spruce (Picea abies) needles: Advances in phytomedical diagnosis. Experientia41: 591–597.
Evans, G. C. 1966. Model and measurement in the study of woodland light climates. Pages 53–76in 6th Sympos. British Ecol. Soc. Blackwell, London.
Evans, L. S. 1982. Biological effects of acidity in precipitation on vegetation. A review. Environ. Exp. Bot.22: 155–169.
—,D. C. Canada &K. A. Santucci. 1986. Foliar uptake of15N from rain. Environ. Exp. Bot.26: 143–146.
Evers, F. H. 1983. Ein Versuch zur Aluminium-toxizität bei Fichte. Forst Holzw.38: 305–307.
Fairfax, J. A. W. &N. W. Lepp. 1975. Effects of simulated ‘acid rain’ on cation loss from leaves. Nature255: 324–325.
——. 1976. The effect of simulated acid precipitation on cation loss from a range of tree litter. Pages 123–125in L. Karenlampi (ed.), Plant damage caused by air pollution. University of Kuopio Press, Finland.
Faulstich, H. 1985. Triäthylblei als mögliche Ursache von Waldschäden. Pages 227–287in G. v. Kortzfleisch (ed.), Waldschäden. Theorie und Praxis auf der Suche nach Antworten. R. Oldenbourg-Verlag, Wein.
Federer, CA. 1971. Solar radiation absorption by leafless deciduous forests. Agric. Meteorol.9: 3–20.
— &J. W. Hornbeck. 1985. The buffer capacity of forest soils in New England. Water Air Soil Poll.26: 163–173.
— &C. B. Tanner. 1966. Spectral distribution of light in the forest. Ecology47: 555–560.
Fenner, M. 1985. Seed ecology. Chapman and Hall, London.
Fernandez, I. J. &M. M. Czaporoskij. 1985. Levels of trace metals in the forest floors of low elevation, commercial spruce-fir sites in Maine. Northeast Environ. Sci.4: 1–7.
-& R. A. Struchtemeyer. 1982. The composition of equilibrium soil solutions from forest soil B horizons. Life Sci. Agric. Exp. Sta. Univ. Maine. Tech. Bull. 105. Orono.
Fink, S. 1983. Histologische und histochemische Untersuchungen an Nadeln erkrankter Tannen und Fichten im Südschwarzwald. Allg. Forstz.38: 660–663.
Firestone, M. K., R. B. Firestone &J. M. Tiedje. 1981. Nitrous oxide from soil denitrification: Factors controlling its biological production. Science208: 749–751.
Fisher, R. F. 1980. Allelopathy: A potential cause of regeneration failure. J. Forest.78: 346–350.
Ford, E. D. &J. D. Deans. 1978. The effects of canopy structure on stemflow, throughfall, and interception loss in a young Sitka spruce plantation. J. Appl. Ecol.15: 905–917.
Forster, B. A. 1984. An economic assessment of the significance of long-range transported air pollutants for agriculture in eastern Canada. Canad. J. Agric. Econ.32: 498–525.
Foster, N. W. 1985. Acid precipitation and soil solution chemistry within a maple-birch forest in Canada. Forest. Ecol. Managm.12: 215–231.
Francis, A. J. & R. Bernatsky. 1978. Biogenic emissions of nitrous oxide by acid and acidified soils. Brookhaven Natl. Lab. Rpt. BNL-24880, Upton, New York.
Francis, J. D., D. Olson & R. Bernatsky. 1980. Effects of acidity on microbial processes in forest soils. Pages 166–167in D. Drablos & A. Tollan (eds.), Ecological impact of acid precipitation. Proc. Intl. Conf., Sandejford, Norway.
Freedman, B. &U. Prager. 1986. Ambient bulk deposition, throughfall and stemflow of forest stands in Nova Scotia. Canad. J. Forest Res. 16: 84–86.
Friedland, A. J., R. Gregory, K. Kärenlampi &A. H. Johnson. 1984a. Winter damage to foliage as a factor in red spruce decline. Canad. J. Forest Res.14: 963–965.
-,G. J. Hawley & R. A. Gregory. 1985. Investigations on nitrogen as a possible contributor to red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) decline. Pages 95–106in Proc. Sympos. Effects of Air Pollutants on Forest Ecosystems. Minneapolis, Minnesota.
—,A. H. Johnson &T. G. Siccama. 1984b. Trace metal content of the forest floor in the Green Mountains of Vermont: Spatial and temporal patterns. Water Air Soil Poll.21: 161–170.
—,——. 1986. Zinc, Cu, Ni and Cd in the forest floor in the northeastern United States. Water Air Soil Poll.29: 233–243.
—,—— &D. L. Mader. 1984c. Trace metal profiles in the forest floor of New England. J. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.48: 422–425.
Frink, C. R. &G. K. Voight. 1977. Potential effects of acid precipitation on soils in the humid temperate zones. Water Air Soil Poll.7: 371–388.
Fuhrer, E. 1983. Immissionen und Forstschädlinge. Allg. Forstz.38: 668–669.
Fuhrer, J. &C. Fuhrer-Fries. 1982. Interactions between acidic deposition and forest ecosystem processes. Eur. J. Forest Pathol.12: 377–390.
Gagnon, G., L. Robitaille, G. Roy &C. Gravel. 1985. Dieback in maple stands-The behaviour of some variables. Pages 1–17in Serv. Rech. Forest. Ministry l’Energie. Quebec, Canada.
Galaux, A. 1981. Radiation, heat, water and carbon dioxide balances. Pages 88–264in D. E. Reichle (ed.), Dynamic properties of forest ecosystems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gary, H. L. 1972. Rime contributes to water balance in high elevation aspen ferests. J. Forest.70: 93–97.
Gates, D. M. &R. Janke. 1965. The energy environment of the alpine tundra. Oecol. Pl.1: 39–62.
Gaumann, E. 1950. Principles of plant protection (Engl. Trans, by W. B. Brierley). Crosby Lockwood, London.
Gehrmann, J. &B. Ulrich. 1982. Der Einfluss der sauren Niederschläge auf die Naturverjüngung der Buche. Sonderh. Mitt. Landesanst. Okol.1982: 32–36.
Gerritse, R. G. &W. Van Driel. 1984. The relationship between adsorption of trace metals, organic matter, and pH in temperate soils. J. Environ. Qual.13: 197–204.
Gilbert, O. L. 1986. Field evidence for acid rain effect on lichens. Environ. Poll.A40: 227–231.
Gilleland, D. S. &J. H. Swisher, 1985. Acid rain control: The costs of compliance. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, Illinois.
Glatzel, G. &M. Kadza. 1985. Wachstum und Mineralstoffernährung von Buche (Fagus sylvatica) und Spitzahorn (Acer platanoides) auf versauerten und schwermetallbelastetem Bodenmaterial aus dem Einsickerungsbereich von Stammflusswasser in Buchenwald. Z. Pflanzenernähr. Düngung Bodenk.148: 429–438.
Godbold, D. L. &A. Hüttermann. 1985. Effect of zinc, cadmium and mercury on root elongation ofPicea abies (Karst.) seedlings, and the significance of these metals to forest dieback. Environ. Poll.38: 375–381.
Godman, R. M. &L. W. Krefting. 1960. Factors important to yellow birch establishment in upper Michigan. Ecology41: 18–28.
Goodfellow, S. &J. P. Barkham. 1974. Spectral transmission curves for a beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) canopy. Acta Bot. Neerl.23: 225–230.
Griffiths, A. P. &L. H. McCormick. 1984. Effects of soil acidity on nodulation ofAlnus glutinosa and viability ofFrankia. Pl. & Soil79: 429–434.
Grime, J. P. &D. W. Jeffrey. 1965. Seedling establishment in vertical gradients of sunlight. J.Ecol.53: 621–642.
Grubb, P. J. 1977. The maintenance of species-richness in plant communities: The importance of the regeneration niche. Biol. Rev.52: 107–145.
Guderian, R. 1985. Air pollution by photochemical oxidants. Springer, Berlin.
Guldberg, L. D. &P. R. Atsatt. 1975. Frequency of reflection and absorption of ultraviolet light in flowering plants. Amer. Midl. Nat.93: 35–43.
Hadley, J. L. &W. K. Smith. 1986. Wind effects on needles of timberline conifers: Seasonal influence on mortality. Ecology67: 12–19.
Hagvar, S. 1984. Effects of liming and artificial acid rain on Collembola and Protura in coniferous forest. Pedobiologica27: 341–354.
— &G. Abrahamsen. 1980. Colonization of Enchytraeidae, Collembola and Araci in sterile soil samples with adjusted pH levels. Oikos43: 245–258.
— &T. Amundsen. 1981. Effects of liming and artificial acid rain on the mite (acar) fauna in coniferous forest. Oikos37: 7–20.
-,A. Fjellberg, F. E. Klausen, T. Kramme & D. Refseth. 1980. Acidification experiments in conifer forest. 7. Effects of acidification on insects and spiders in the forest floor. Internal Rpt. IA 68/80. SNSF Project. Oslo.
Haines, B., M. Stefani &F. Hendrix. 1980. Acid rain: Threshold of leaf damage in eight plant species from a southern Appalachian forest succession. Water Air Soil Poll.11: 403–407.
Halevy, J. D. &J. H. Patrick. 1965. Canopy and litter interception by hardwoods of eastern United States. Water Resources Res.1: 193–206.
Hanson, D. W., S. A. Norton &J. S. Williams. 1982. Modern and paleolimnological evidence for accelerated leaching and metal accumulation in soils in New England caused by atmospheric deposition. Water Air Soil Poll.16: 227–239.
Hanson, J. B. 1983. The roles of calcium in plant growth. Curr. Topics Pl. Biochem. Physiol.1: 1–24.
Harkov, R. &E. Brennan. 1979. An ecophysiological analysis of the response of trees to oxidant pollution. J. Air Poll. Control Assoc.29: 157–161.
Harrington, T. C. 1986. Growth decline of wind-exposed red spruce and balsam fir in the White Mountains. Canad. J. Forest Res.16: 232–238.
—,D. M. Rizzo &P. J. Marchand. 1984. Wind, rocks, root disease and mortality of subalpine red spruce and balsam fir. Phytopathology74: 823 (Abstr.).
Hausenbuiller, R. L. 1978. Soil science. Principles and practices. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa.
Hay, A. S. 1973. Arthropod stress. Pages 33–34in W. H. Smith & L. S. Dochinger (eds.), Air pollution and metropolitan woody vegetation. U.S. Dept. Agric. Forest. Ser. Publ. PLEFR-PA-1. Upper Darby, Pennsylvania.
Hay, C. J. 1977. Bibliography on Arthropoda and air pollution. U.S. Dept. Agric. Forest. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rpt. NE-34. Upper Darby, Pennsylvania. 16 pp.
Hay, G. W., J. H. James &G. W. VanLoon. 1985. Solubilization effect of simulated acid rain on the organic matter of forest soils: Preliminary results. Soil Sci.139: 422–430.
Haynes, R. J. 1986. Mineral nitrogen in the plant-soil system. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida.
Heinricks, H. &R. Mayer. 1977. Distribution and cycling of major and trace elements in two central European forest ecosystems. J. Environ. Qual.6: 402–407.
Hendrey, G. R. 1979. Limnological aspects of acid precipitation. Brookhaven Natl. Lab. Workshop BLN 51074 UC-11. Upton, New York.
Hennessey, T. C. 1986. Stress physiology and forest productivity. Nijhoff, Amsterdam.
Hepting, G. H. 1963. Climate and forest disease. Annual Rev. Phytopathol.1: 31–50.
Hewlett, J. D. 1961. Soil moisture as a source of baseflow from steep mountain watersheds. U.S. Dept. Agric. Forest. Serv. Southeastern Forest Exp. Sta. Paper 132.
Hinrichsen, D. 1986. Multiple pollutants and forest decline. Ambio15: 258–265.
Hoar, L. E. & H. E. Young. 1965. Mensuration methods for site classification of shade tolerant tree species. Maine Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 18. Orono.
Hoffman, W. A., S. E. Lindberg &R. R. Turner. 1980. Precipitation acidity: The role of the forest canopy in acid exchange. J. Environ. Qual.9: 95–100.
Holdgate, M. W. &M. J. Woodman. 1978. The breakdown and restoration of ecosystems. Plenum, New York.
Hollings, C. S. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Rev. Ecol. Syst.4: 1–23.
Horntvedt, R., G. J. Dollard &E. Joranger. 1981. Interaction of acid precipitation and forest vegetation. Forstl. Bundes Versuchanst.137: 281–287.
Horsley, S. B. 1977. Allelopathic inhibition of black cherry by fern, grass, goldenrod and aster. Canad. J. Forest Res.7: 205–216.
Horvath, L. 1983. Trend of the nitrate and ammonium content of precipitation water in Hungary for the last 80 years. Tellus38B: 304–308.
Hosker, R. P. &S. E. Lindberg. 1982. Atmospheric deposition and plant accumulation of gases and particles. Atmos. Environ.16: 889–910.
Houghton, H. G. 1955. On the chemical composition of fog and cloud water. J. Meteorol.12: 255–357.
Houston, D. R. 1981. Stress triggered tree diseases. The diebacks and declines. U.S. Dept. Agric. Forest. Serv. Bull. NE-INF-41-81. Upper Darby, Pennsylvania.
Hoyle, M. C. 1971. Effect of the chemical environment on yellow birch root development and top growth. Pl.& Soil35: 623–633.
Hsiao, T. C. 1973. Plant responses to water stress. Annual Rev. Pl. Physiol.24: 519–570.
Huckabee, J. W. &G. B. Blaylock. 1974. Microcosm studies on transfer of mercury, cadmium and selenium from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems. Pages 219–222in D. D. Hemphill (ed.), Proc. University of Missouri 8th Annual Conf. Trace Substances in Environmental Health. University of Missouri Press, Columbia, Missouri.
Hueste, A. R. &J. G. McColl. 1984. Soil cation leaching by “acid rain” with varying nitrate-to-sulphate rations. J. Environ. Qual.13: 366–371.
Hüttermann, A. 1985. The effects of acid deposition on the physiology of the forest ecosystem. Experientia41: 584–590.
—,A. Becker, J. Gehrmann &R. Tischner. 1983. Einfluss von Schadstoffen und Kalkdüngen auf die Morphologie der Wurzeln vonFagus sylvatica. Pages 637–652in Intl. Sympos. Wurzelökologie und ihre Nutzanwendung. Bundesanstalt Gumpenstein, Irdning, West Germany.
— &B. Ulrich. 1984. Solid phase-solution-root interactions in soils subjected to acid deposition. Philos. Trans.B305: 353–368.
Hüttl, R. F. 1986. Ernährungsstörungen und diagnostische Düngung. Waldschäden. VDI-Kolloquiums, Universität Freiberg, West Germany.
Huttunen, D. &K. Laine. 1983. Effects of air-borne pollutants on the surface wax structure ofPinus sylvestris needles. Ann. Bot. Fenn.20: 79–86.
Huttunen, S., P. Havas &K. Laine. 1981a. Effects of air pollution on the wintertime water economy of the Scots pine,Pinus sylvestris. Holarct. Ecol.4: 94–101.
—,L. Kärenlampi &K. Kolari. 1981b. Changes in osmotic potential and some related physiological variables in needles of polluted Norway spruce (Picea abies). Ann. Bot. Fenn.18: 63–71.
Ineson, P. &T. R. G. Gray. 1980. Monitoring the effects of ‘acid rain’ and sulfur dioxide upon soil microorganisms. Pages 21–26in G. W. Gould & J. E. Carry (eds.), Microbiological growth and survival in extremes of environment. Academic Press, New York.
James, B. R. &S. J. Riha. 1984. Soluble aluminum in acidified organic horizons of forest soils. Canad. J. Soil Sci.64: 637–646.
Jarvis, P. G. 1976. Exchange properties of coniferous forest canopies. Pages 90–98. Proc. XVI Congress Intl. Union Forest. Res. Organizations. Oslo.
— &M. S. Jarvis. 1963. The water relations of tree seedlings. II. Transpiration in relation to soil water potential. Physiol. Pl.16: 236–253.
Jensen, G. 1960. Effects of temperature and shifts in temperature on the respiration of intact root systems. Physiol. Pl.13: 822–830.
Jensen, K. F. 1986. Photosynthetic response ofLiriodendron tulipifera L. seedlings to acid rain treatments and ozone fumigation. Ann. Mtg. Bot. Soc. Amer., Amherst, Massachusetts. Abstr. #323 Amer. J. Bot.73: 720.
Johnson, A. H. &T. G. Siccama. 1983. Acid deposition and forest decline. Environ. Sci. Tech.17: 294A-305A.
— &A. J. Friedland. 1982. Spatial and temporal patterns of lead accumulation in the forest floor in the northeastern United States. J. Environ. Qual.11: 577–580.
Johnson, D. W. &D. D. Richter. 1983. Contributions of acidic depositions and natural processes to cation leaching from forest soils. A review. Canad. J. Forest Res.33: 1036–1041.
—. 1985. The effects of atmospheric deposition on potassium, calcium and magnesium cycling in two deciduous forests. Canad. J. Forest Res.15: 773–782.
Jones, M. D. &T. C. Hutchinson. 1986. The effect of mycorrhizal infection on the response ofBetula papyrifera to nickel and copper. New Phytol.102: 429–442.
Kalisz, P. J. &E. L. Stone. 1980. Cation exchange capacity of acid forest humus layers. J. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.44: 407–413.
Kandier, O. 1983. Waldsterben: Emissions—oder Epidemic Hypothese? Naturwiss. Rund-I schau36: 488–490.
Kaufmann, M. R. 1968. Water relations of pine seedlings in relation to root and shoot I growth. Pl. Physiol.43: 281–288.
Keller, H. M. 1968. Der Heutige Stand des Forschung über den Einfluss des Waldes auf I den Wasserhaushalt. Schweiz. Z. Forstwiss.4/5: 364–379.
Keller, T. 1978. Wintertime atmospheric pollutants—Do they affect the performance of deciduous trees in the ensuing growing season? Environ. Poll.16: 243–247.
— &R. Zuben. 1970. Lead uptake and lead distribution in young spruce plants. Forstwiss. Centralbl.89: 20–26.
Kenk, G. K. 1984. Zum Problemkreis Walderkrankung und Wachstumforschung. Forst Holzw.39: 435–438.
Kiese, O. 1972. Bestandsmeteorologische Untersuchungen zur Bestimmung des Wärme-haushaltes eines Buchenwald. Ber. Inst. Meteorol. Klimatol. Tech. Univ. Hannover.
Killham, K., M. K. Firestone &J. G. McColl. 1983. Acid rain and soil microbial activity: effects and their mechanisms. J. Environ. Qual.12: 133–137.
— &M. Wainwright. 1981. Deciduous leaf litter and cellulose decomposition in soil exposed to heavy atmospheric pollution. Environ. Poll.26: 79–85.
Kincaid, D. T. &E. E. Lyons. 1981. Winter water relations of red spruce on Mount Monadnock, New Hampshire. Ecology62: 1155–1161.
Klein, R. M. 1984. Effect of acidity and metal ions on water movement through red spruce. Pages 303–332in D. D. Adams & W. P. Page (eds.), Acid deposition. Plenum Press, New York.
—. 1986. Forest decline: Is it caused by acid rain? Appalachian Trailway News47(4): 18–20, 25.
— &M. Bliss. 1984. Decline in surface coverage by mosses on Camels Hump Mountain, Vermont: Possible relationship to acidic deposition. Bryologist87: 128–131.
Klein, T. M., N. J. Novick, J. P. Kreitinger &M. Alexander. 1984. Simultaneous inhibition of C- and N-mineralization in a forest soil by simulated acid precipitation. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.32: 698–703.
Knabe, W. 1976. Effects of sulphur dioxide on terrestrial vegetation. Ambio5: 213–218.
-& K. H. Günther. 1976. Investigations on effects of the forest canopy on acid and sulphur precipitations in the Ruhr district, Germany. Pages 895–896in D. Dochinger & R. Seliga (eds.), U.S. Dept. Agric. Forest Serv. Gen. Tech. Rpt. NE-26. Upper Darby, Pennsylvania.
Ko, W. H. &F. K. Hora. 1972. Identification of an Al ion as a soil fungitoxin. Soil Sci.113: 42–45.
Koroleff, A. 1954. Leaf litter as a killer. J. Forest.52: 178–182.
Korstain, C. F. 1937. Perpetuation of species on cut-over and burned lands in the high southern Appalachian mountains. Ecol. Monogr. 7: 125–167.
Koskela, V. 1970. On the occurrence of various forest damages on Norway spruce, Scots pine, silver birch and Siberian larch in the forest fertilization experimental area at Kivisuo. Folia Forest.78: 1–25.
Kowalski, T. &K. J. Lang. 1984. Die Pilzflora von Nadeln, Trieben und ästen unterschiedlich alter Fichten (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) mit besonderer Berücksichtigung vom Fichtensterben betroffener Altbäume. Forstwiss. Centralbl. 6: 349–360.
Kramer, K. &S. Athari. 1984. Über die Zuwachsentwicklung in Immissionsgesschädigten Fichtenbeständen und ihrer Bedeutung für die Hiebssatzbestimmung. Allg. Forstz.39: 685–686.
Kramer, P. J. 1983. Water relations of plants. Academic Press, New York.
Krug, E. C. &C. R. Frink. 1983. Acid rain on acid soil: A new perspective. Science221: 520–525.
Lange, O. L., J. Gebel, H. Zellner &P. Schramel. 1986. Photosynthesekapazität und Magnesiumgehalte verschiedener Nadeljahrgänge bei der Fichte in Waldschadensgebeiten der Fichtelgebirge. Wirkungen von Luftverunreinigungen auf Waldbäume und Waldböden., Jülien, West Germany.
Lawrey, J. D. 1978. Trace metal dynamics in decomposing litter in habitats variously influenced by coal strip mining. Canad. J. Bot.56: 953–962.
Leaf, C. F. & G. E. Brink. 1973. Computer simulation of snowmelt within a Colorado subalpine watershed. U.S. Dept. Agric. Forest. Serv. Rocky Mountain Forest. Range Exp. Sta. Res. Paper RM-99. Denver, Colorado.
Lebrun, P. 1976. Effets écologiques de la pollution atmosphérique sur les populations et communautés des microarthropodes corticale (Acariens, Collemboles et Pterygotes). Bull. Soc. Ecol. France7: 417–430.
Legge, A. H. &S. V. Krupa. 1986. Air pollutants and their effects on the terrestrial ecosystem. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Lepp, N. W. 1975. Cycling of heavy metals in woodland ecosystems. Pages C82-C84in Intl. Conf. Heavy Metals in the Environment. Toronto, Canada.
—. 1981. Effects of heavy metal pollution on plants. Appl. Sci. Publ., Englewood, New Jersey.
Lettl, A. 1985. Heterotrophic nitrifying bacteria in acid forest soils polluted by atmospheric SO2. Folia Microbiol.30: 509–516.
Lewis, W. M. &M. C. Grant. 1979. Changes in the output of ions from a watershed as a result of the acidification of precipitation. Ecology60: 1093–1097.
Li, T. T. 1926. Soil temperature as influenced by forest cover. Bull. Yale Univ. School Forest. 18. New Haven, Connecticut.
Liang, C. N. &M. A. Tabatabai. 1977. Effects of trace elements on nitrogen mineralization in soils. Environ. Poll.12: 141–147.
Lichtenthaler, H. K. &R. Burgstahler. 1982. Effect of high light stress on composition, function, and structure of the photosynthetic apparatus. Pages 353–370in R. Marcelle(ed.), Stress effects on photosynthesis. Dr. W. Junk, The Hague.
— &C. Buschmann. 1984. Beziehungen zwischen Photosynthese und Baumsterben. Allg. Forstz.39: 12–16.
Liedeker, H. 1986. Evaluation of forest dieback symptoms on Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) in Europe and America. Inst. Forstbot., Ludwig-Maximillian-Univ. München.
Like, D. E. &R. M. Klein. 1985. The effect of simulated acid rain on nitrate and ammonium production in soils from three ecosystems of Camels Hump Mountain, Vermont. Soil Sci.140: 352–355.
Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann &N. M. Johnson. 1969. Nitrification: Importance to nutrient losses from a cutover forested ecosystem. Science163: 1205–1206.
Lindberg, S. E. &R. C. Harris. 1981. The role of atmospheric deposition in an eastern deciduous forest. Water Air Soil Poll.16: 13–31.
Linn, E. R. 1918. Silvical systems in spruce in northern New Hampshire. J. Forest.16: 897–908.
Linteau, A. 1948. Factors affecting germination and early survival of yellow birch (Betula lutea Michx.) in Quebec. Forest Chron.24: 27–86.
Liss, B. v., H. Blaschke &P. Schütt. 1984. Vergleichende Feinwurzeluntersuchungen an gesunden und erkrankten Altfichten auf zwei Standorten in Bayren—Ein Beitrag zur Waldsterbenforschung. Eur. J. Forest Pathol.14: 90–102.
Loach, K. 1967. Shade tolerance in tree seedlings. I. Leaf photosynthesis and respiration in plants raised in artificial shade. New Phytol.66: 607–621.
Logan, K. T. 1970. Adaptations to the photosynthetic apparatus of sun- and shade-grown yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis). Canad. J. Bot.48: 1681–1688.
— &G. Krotkov. 1969. Adaptations of the photosynthetic mechanisms of sugar maple seedlings grown in various light intensities. Physiol. Pl.22: 104–116.
Lohm, U. 1980. Effects of experimental acidification on soil organism populations and decomposition. Pages 178–179in D. Drablos & A. Tollan (eds.), Ecological impact of acid precipitation. SNSF Project, Sandefjord, Norway.
Lovett, G. &S. E. Lindberg. 1985. The effects of acidic deposition on cation leaching from three deciduous forest canopies. Canad. J. Forest Res.15: 1055–1060.
Lovett, G. M., W. A. Reiners &R. K. Olson. 1982. Cloud droplet deposition in subalpine balsam fir forests: Hydrological and chemical inputs. Science218: 1303–1304.
Luken, J. O. 1986. Disturbance and patch dynamics. Ecology67: 585–586.
Madgwick, H. A. I. &J. D. Ovington. 1959. The chemical composition of precipitation in adjacent forest and open plots. Forestry32: 14–22.
Malcolm, R. L. &R. J. McCracken. 1968. Canopy drip: A source of mobile soil organic matter for mobilization of iron and aluminum. Soil. Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc.32: 834–838.
Mandelbaum, P. 1986. The cost of control. Acid rain economic assessment. Plenum Press, New York.
Manion, P. D. &R. J. Bragg. 1982. Effects of acid precipitation on Scleroderris canker disease. Pages 55–56in J. S. Jacobson (ed.), Proc. New York State Symp. Atmos. Deposition. Center Environ. Res. Cornell Univ., Ithaca, New York.
Mantylahti, V. &R. Niskanen. 1986. Effect of acidification on cation exchange capacity of eight Finnish mineral soils. Acta Agric. Scand.36: 339–346.
Marchand, P. J. 1984. Dendrochronology of a fir wave. Canad. J. Forest Res.14: 51–56.
— &B. F. Chabot. 1978. Winter water relations of tree-line plant species on Mt. Washington, New Hampshire. Arctic Alpine Res.10: 105–116.
— &F. L. Goulet. 1986. Death by attrition: A hypothesis for wave mortality of subalpineAbies balsamea. Canad. J. Forest Res.16: 591–596.
Marques, D. A. 1965. Artificial light sources differ in effect on birch seedling growth. U.S. Dept. Agric. Forest Serv. Res. Note NE-35. Northeast. Forest Exp. Sta., Upper Darby, Pennsylvania.
Martin, W. C. 1977. Distribution of tree species in an undisturbed northern hardwood spruce-fir forest, The Bowl, New Hampshire. U.S. Dept. Agric. Northeast. Forest Exp. Sta. Res. Note NE-244. Upper Darby, Pennsylvania.
Maruyama, A., G. Levatsubo &T. Tsutsomi. 1965. On the amount of plant nutrients supplied to the ground by rainwater in adjacent open plots and forest. Kyoto Univ. Forest. Bull.36: 25–39.
Marx, D. H. 1972. Ectomycorrhizae as biological deterrents to pathogenic root infections. Annual Rev. Phytopathol.10: 429–454.
—,A. B. Hatch &J. F. Mendicino. 1977. High soil fertility decreases sucrose content and susceptibility of loblolly pine roots to ectomycorrhizal infection byPisolithus tinctorious. Canad. J. Bot.55: 1569–1594.
— &B. Zak. 1965. Effect of pH on mycorrhizal formation of slash pine in aseptic cultures. Forest Sci.11: 66–75.
Masuch, G. &A. Kittrup. 1986. Effects of H2O2-containing acidic fog on young trees. Intl. J. Environ. Analytical Chem.27: 183–213.
Mathews, J. T. &D. Hinricksen (eds.). 1986. Multiple pollutants and forest decline. World Resources 1986. Basic Books, New York.
Matzner, E. 1984. Annual rate of deposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in different forest ecosystems. Water Air Soil Poll.21: 425–434.
— &B. Ulrich. 1981. Bilanzierung jährlicher Elementflüsse in Waldökosystemen in Solling. Z. Pflanzenernahr. Bodenk.144: 660–681.
——. 1985. ‘Waldsterben’: Our dying forests. Part II. Implications of the chemical soil conditions for forest decline. Experientia41: 578–584.
Mayer, R. &H. Heinrichs. 1981. Gehalte von Baumwurzeln an chemischen Elementen einschliesslich Schwermetallen aus luftverunreinigungen. Zeit. Pflanzenernahr. Bodenk.144: 637–646.
— &B. Ulrich. 1977. Acidity of precipitation as influenced by the filtering of atmospheric sulfur and nitrogen compounds—Its role in the element balance and effect on soil. Water Air Soil Poll.7: 409–416.
— &P. Khanna. 1975. Die Ausfilterung von Luftverunreinigingen durch Wälder—Einflüsse auf die Azität der Niederschläge und deren Auswirkung auf den Boden. Mitt. Deutsch. Bodenk. Ges.22: 339–348.
McCormick, L. H. &F. V. Borden. 1974. The occurrence of aluminum phosphate precipitation in plant roots. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.38: 931–934.
— &K. C. Steiner. 1978. Variation in aluminum tolerance among six genera of trees. Forest Sci.24: 565–568.
McFee, W. W., J. M. Kelly &R. Beck. 1977. Acid precipitation effects on soil pH and base saturation on exchange sites. Water Air Soil Poll.7: 401–408.
McIntosh, R. P. &R. T. Hurley. 1964. The spruce-fir forests of the Catskill Mountains. Ecology45: 314–326.
McLaughlin, D. L., S. N. Linzon, D. E. Dimma & W. D. McIlveen. 1985. Sugar maple decline in Ontario. Ontario Ministry Environ. Rpt. ARB-144-85-Phyto AP IOS #026/ 85. Ottawa, Canada.
McLaughlin, S. & D. Shriner. 1976. Plant pollution interactions. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., Oak Ridge Conference 761121-3. Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
McLaughlin, S. B. &G. E. Taylor. 1981. Relative humidity: Important modifier of pollutant uptake by plants. Science211: 167–169.
Mecklenburg, R. A., H. B. Tukey &J. V. Morgan. 1966. A mechanism for the leaching of calcium from foliage. Pl. Physiol.41: 610–613.
Meiwes, K. J. &P. K. Khanna. 1981. Distribution and cycling of sulfur in the vegetation of two forest ecosystems in an acid rain environment. Pl. Soil60: 369–375.
Mejstrik, V. K. 1980. Ectomycorrhizas inPicea abies (L.) Karst. from a heavily SO2 polluted area. Pages 171–179in J. Spaling (ed.), Intl. Conf. Bioindicators. Prague, Czechoslovakia.
Mexal, J. &C. P. P. Reid. 1973. The growth of selected mycorrhizal fungi in response to induced water stress. Canad. J. Bot.51: 1579–1588.
Meyer, F. H. 1984. Mykologische Beobachtungen zum Baumsterben. Allg. Forstz.39: 212–227.
—. 1985a. Einfluss des Stickstoff-Faktors auf den Mycorrhizabesatz von Fichtensämlingen im Humus einer Waldschadensfläche. Allg. Forstz.40: 208–212.
—. 1985b. Die Rolle des Wurzelsystems beim Waldsterben. Forst Holzw.40: 351–358.
Miles, C. D., D. Brandle, T. Chu-der, B. Schnare &W. Uhlik. 1972. Inhibition of photosystem II in isolated chloroplasts by leaching. Pl. Physiol.49: 820–825.
Miller, H. G. 1984. Deposition-plant-soil interactions. Philos. Trans.B305: 339–352.
—,J. M. Copper &J. D. Miller. 1976. Effect of nitrogen supply on nutrients in litterfall and crown leaching in a stand of Corsican pine. J. Appl. Ecol.13: 233–248.
-& J. D. Miller. 1980. Collection and retention of atmospheric pollutants by vegetation. Pages 33–40in D. Drablos & A. Tollan (eds.), Ecological impact of acid precipitation. Proc. Intl. Conf. Sandefjord, Norway.
Miller, P. C. 1969. Tests of solar radiation models in three forest canopies. Ecology60: 878–885.
Minckler, L. S., J. D. Woerhide & R. C. Schlesinger. 1973. Light, soil, moisture and tree reproduction in hardwood forest openings. U.S. Dept. Agric. Forest Serv. Res. Rpt. NC-89. St. Paul, Minnesota.
Mohr, H. 1985. A critical assessment. Naturopa15: 18–20.
Mollitor, A. V. & R. Berg. 1980. Effects of acid precipitation on forest soils. Section 3. Pages 3.3–3.67in D. J. Raynal (ed.), Actual and potential effects of acid precipitation on a forest ecosystem in the Adirondack Mountains. Res. Found. SUNY 56/ES-EHS/ 79, Syracuse, New York.
Moloney, K. A., L. J. Stratton &R. M. Klein. 1983. Effects of simulated acidic, metalcontaining precipitation on coniferous litter decomposition. Canad. J. Bot.61: 3337–3342.
Moore, B. 1917a. Reproduction in the coniferous forests of northern New England. Bot. Gaz.64: 149–158.
—. 1917b. Some factors influencing the reproduction of red spruce, balsam, fir and white pine. J. Forest.15: 827–853.
—. 1922. Humus and root systems in central northeastern forests in relation to reproduction and competition. J. Forest.20: 233–254.
—. 1926. Influence of certain soil and light conditions on the establishment of reproduction in northeastern conifers. Ecology7: 191–220.
Murach, D. 1984. Die Reaktion der Feinwurzeln von Fichten (Picea abies Karst.) auf zunehmende Bodenversauerung. Göttingen Bodenk. Ber.77: 1–126.
Murphy, C. E. &K. R. Knoerr. 1975. The evaporation of intercepted rainfall from a forest stand: An analysis by simulation. Water Resources Res.11: 273–280.
Murphy, L. S. 1917a. Seeding habits of spruce as a factor in the competition of spruce with its associates. Pl. World20: 87–90.
-. 1917b. The red spruce: Its growth and management. U.S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 544.
Nairfalise, A. 1959. Sur l’interception de la pluie par le couvert dans quelques forêts Belge. Bull. Soc. Roy. Forest. Belgique (Bruxelles)10: 433–439.
National Academy of Science. 1983. Acid deposition. Atmospheric processes in Eastern North America. Natl. Acad. Sci. Press, Washington, D.C.
Neal, C. &P. Whitehead. 1986. Modelling the effects of acidic deposition and conifer afforestation in stream acidity in the British uplands. J. Hydrol.86: 15–26.
Nicholson, A. J. 1954. An outline of the dynamics of animal populations. Austral. J. Zool.2: 9–65.
Nienhaus, F. 1985. Zur Frage der parasitären Verseuchung von Forstgehölzen durch Viren und primative Mikroorganismen. Allg. Forstz.40: 119–124.
Nienstaedt, H. 1985. Inheritance and correlation of forest injury, growth, flowering and cone characteristics in white spruce,Picea glauca (Moench.) Voss. Canad. J. Forest Res.15: 498–504.
Nihlgaard, B. 1970. Precipitation: Its chemical composition and effect on soil water in a beech and a spruce forest in south Sweden. Oikos21: 208–217.
—. 1985. The ammonium hypothesis—An additional explanation to the forest dieback in Europe. Ambio14: 2–8.
Nilsson, I. 1971. Accumulations of metals in spruce needles and needle litter. Oikos22: 132–136.
Nobel, P. S. 1981. Wind as an ecological factor. Pages 475–500in O. L. Lange, P. S. Nobel, C. B. Osmond & H. Ziegler (eds.), Physiological plant ecology. I. Responses to the physical environment. Springer, Berlin.
Norman, J. M. &P. G. Jarvis. 1974. Photosynthesis in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong) Cam).III. Measurements of canopy structure and interception of radiation. J. Appl. Ecol.11: 375–398.
—,E. E. Miller &C. B. Tanner. 1971. Light intensity and sunfleck-size distribution in plant canopies. Agron. J.63: 743–748.
Norton, S. A. 1977. Changes in chemical processes in soils caused by acid precipitation. Water Air Soil Poll.7: 389–400.
—,D. W. Hanson &R. J. Campana. 1980. The impact of acidic precipitation and heavy metals on soils in relation to forest ecosystems. Pages 152–157in P. R. Miller (ed.), Effects of air pollutants on mediterranean and temperate forest ecosystems. Pacific Southwest Forest Range Exp. Sta., Berkeley, California.
Nriagu, J. O. 1979. Global inventory of natural and anthropogenic emissions of trace metals to the atmosphere. Nature279: 409–411.
Nykvist, N. 1961. Leaching and decomposition of litter. IV. Experiments on needle litter ofPicea abies. Oikos12: 264–279.
Odum, H. T. &R. F. Pigeon. 1970. A tropical rain forest. U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., Washington, D.C.
Odum, W. E. &J. E. Drifmeyer. 1978. Sorption of pollutants by plant detritus: A review. Environ. Health Persp.27: 133–137.
Office of Technology Assessment. 1984. Acid rain and transported air pollutants. Implications for public policy. Congress of the United States, Washington, D.C.
Oliver, C. D. &E. P. Stephens. 1977. Reconstruction of mixed-species forests in central New England. Ecology58: 562–572.
Olsen, R. K., W. A. Reiners, C. S. Cronan &G. E. Lang. 1981. The chemistry of flux of throughfall and stemflow in subalpine balsam fir forests. Holarct. Ecol.4: 291–300.
Olson, J. S. 1963. Energy storage and the balance of producers and decomposers in ecological systems. Ecology44: 322–331.
Olson, R. A. 1983. The impacts of acid deposition on N and S cycling. Environ. Exp. Bot.23: 211–223.
Oquist, G. 1983. Low temperature effects on photosynthesis in conifers. Pages 211–218in R. Marcelle (ed.), Effects of stress on photosynthesis. Nijhoff/Dr. Junk, The Hague.
Ott, H. &H. Stangel. 1983. Acid deposition. A challenge for Europe. Commission Eur. Communities, Brussels.
Overrein, L. N. 1972. Sulfur pollution pattern observed; leaching of calcium in forest soil determined. Ambio1: 145–147.
Paleg, L. &D. Aspinall. 1981. Physiology and biochemistry of drought resistance in plants. Academic Press, New York.
Papke, H. E., B. Krahl-Urban, K. Peters &C. Schimansky (eds.). 1986. Waldschäden. Bundesministerium Forsch. Technol., Julich, West Germany.
Patten, D. T. 1963. Light and temperature influence on Engelmann spruce seed germination and subalpine forest advance. Ecology44: 817–818.
Pearson, R. W. 1971. Introduction to the Symposium—The soil solution. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.35: 417–420.
Pereira, J. S. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1977. Influence of light intensity, temperature, and leaf area on stomatal aperture and water potential of woody plants. Canad. J. Forest Res.7: 145–153.
Perkins, T. D., H. W. Vogelmann &R. M. Klein. 1987. Changes in light intensity and soil temperature as a result of forest decline on Camels Hump, Vermont. Canad. J. Forest Res.17: 565–568.
Perry, T. O. &G. W. Baldwin. 1966. Wintertime breakdown of the photosynthetic apparatus of evergreen species. Forest Sci.12: 298–300.
Pickett, S. T. A. &P. S. White. 1985. The ecology of natural disturbances and patch dynamics. Academic Press, New York.
Piene, H. 1978. Effects of increased spacing on carbon mineralization rates and temperatures in a stand of young balsam fir. Canad. J. Forest Res.8: 398–406.
Place, I. C. M. 1955. The infuence of seed bed conditions on the regeneration of spruce and balsam fir. Canad. Dept. Northern Affairs Nat. Res. Forest. Branch Bull. 117. Ottawa, Canada.
Prescott, C. E. &D. Parkinson. 1985. Effects of sulfur pollution on rates of litter decomposition in a pine forest. Canad. J. Bot.63: 1436–1443.
Quraishi, M. S. I. &A. H. Cornfield. 1973. Incubation study of nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in relation to soil pH and level of copper (II) addition. Environ. Poll.4: 159–163.
Ranft, H. 1979. Untersuchungen zum Zusammenwirken von Immissions- und Frost einfluss im Fichtenrauchschadengebiet. Beitr. Forstwirt.33: 160–165.
Rechcigl, J. E. &D. L. Sparks. 1985. Effect of acid rain on the soil environment. A review. Commun. Soil Sci. Pl. Analysis16: 635–680.
Redmond, D. R. 1955. Studies in forest pathology. XV. Rootlets, mycorrhiza, and soil temperatures in relation to birch dieback. Canad. J. Bot.33: 595–627.
Rehfuess, K. E. 1981. Über die Wirkungen der sauren Niederschläge in Waldökosystemen. Forstwiss. Centralbl.100: 363–381.
—. 1983. Walderkrankungen und Immissionen—Eine Zwischenbilanz. Allg. Forstz.38: 601–610.
Reich, P. B. &A. W. Schoettle. 1986. Acid rain and ozone influence mycorrhizal infection in tree seedlings. J. Air Poll. Control Assoc.36: 724–726.
—,—,H. F. Stroo, J. Tirano &R. G. Amundson. 1985. Effects of O3, SO2 and acidic rain on mycorrhizal infection in northern red oak seedlings. Canad. J. Bot.63: 2049–2055.
Reichle, D. E. (ed.). 1970. Analysis of temperate forest ecosystems. Springer, New York.
— (ed.). 1981. Dynamic properties of forest ecosystems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Reid, C. P. P., F. A. Kidd &S. A. Ekwebelan. 1983. Nitrogen nutrition, photosynthesis and carbon allocation in ectomycorrhizal pine. Pl.& Soil71: 415–432.
Reifsnyder, W. E., C. M. Furnival &J. L. Horowitz. 1971. Spatial and temporal distribution of solar radiation beneath forest canopies. Agric. Meteorol.9: 21–38.
Reiners, W. A., R. H. Marks &P. M. Vitousek. 1975. Heavy metals in subalpine and alpine soils of New Hampshire. Oikos26: 264–275.
Reinert, R. A. &T. N. Gray. 1981. The response of radish to nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and ozone, alone and in combinations. J. Environ. Qual.10: 240–243.
Reinhart, R. A. 1984. Plant response to air pollutant mixtures. Annual Rev. Phytopathology22: 421–442.
Remacle, J. 1977. The role of heterotrophic nitrification in acid forest soils—Preliminary results. Ecol. Bull.25: 560–561.
Reuss, J. O. 1977. Chemical and biological relationships relevant to the effect of acid rain on the soil-plant system. Water Air Soil Poll.7: 461–478.
— &D. W. Johnson. 1986. Acid deposition and the acidification of soils and waters. Springer, New York.
Reynolds, E. R. C. &C. S. Henderson. 1967. Rainfall interception by beech, larch and Norway spruce. Forestry40: 165–184.
Richter, D. D., D. W. Johnson &D. Todd. 1983. Atmospheric sulphur deposition, neutralization and ion leaching in two deciduous forest ecosystems. J. Environ. Qual.12: 263–270.
Rogerson, T. L. 1967. Throughfall in pole-sized loblolly pine as affected by stand density. Pages 187–190. Intl. Sympos. Forest Hydrology. Pergamon Press, New York.
Rohrig, E., H. Bartels, H. A. Guessone &B. Ulrich. 1978. Untersuchungen zur natürlichen Verjüngung der Buche (Fagus sylvatica). Forstwiss. Centralbl.97: 121–131.
Roman, J. R. & D. J. Raynal. 1980. Effects of acid precipitation on vegetation. Section 4in D. J. Raynal (ed.), Actual and potential effects of acid precipitation on a forest ecosystem in the Adirondack Mountains. Res. Found. SUNY 56/ES-ESH/79, Syracuse, New York.
Ronco, F. 1970. Chlorosis of planted Engelmann spruce seedlings unrelated to nitrogen content. Canad. J. Bot.48: 851–853.
Rost-Siebert, K. 1985. Aluminum toxicity in seedlings of Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst) and beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Pages 49–68in F. Andersson & J. M. Kelly (eds.), Aluminum toxicity to trees. Workshop Documentation Mtg., Uppsala, Sweden. May 1984.
Rothacher, J. 1963. Net precipitation under Douglas-fir forest. Forest. Sci.9: 423–429.
Rovira, A. D., G. D. Bowen &R. C. Foster. 1983. The significance of rhizosphere microflora and mycorrhizas in plant nutrition. Pages 73–86in A. Lauchli & R. L. Bieleski (eds.), Inorganic plant nutrition. Part A. Springer, Berlin.
Runckle, J. R. 1984. Development of woody vegetation in treefall gaps in a beech-maple forest. Holarctic Ecol.7: 157–164.
Running, S. W. 1976. Environmental control of water conductance in conifers. Canad. J. Forest Res.6: 104–112.
Rygiewicz, P. T. &C. S. Bledsoe. 1984. Mycorrhizal effects on potassium fluxes by north-west coniferous seedlings. Pl. Physiol.76: 918–923.
Sakai, A. 1970. Mechanisms of desiccation damage of conifers wintering in soil-frozen area. Ecology51: 657–664.
Sands, R. &C. Theodorou. 1978. Water uptake by mycorrhizal roots of radiata pine seedlings. Austral. J. Plant Physiol.5: 301–309.
Sapper, W. E. &H. W. Lull. 1967. Forest hydrology. Pergamon Press, New York.
Scherbatskoy, T. & M. Bliss. 1983. Occurrence of acidic rain and cloud water in high elevation ecosystems in the Green Mountains of Vermont. Pages 449–463in P. J. Sampson (ed.), The meteorology of acid deposition. Trans. Amer. Poll. Control Assoc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
— &R. M. Klein. 1983. Response of spruce and birch foliage to leaching by acidic mists. J. Environ. Qual.12: 189–195.
Schmidt, D. 1985. Occurrence of microorganisms in the wood of Norway spruce trees from polluted sites. Eur. J. Forest Pathol.15: 2–10.
Schnitzer, M. 1978. Humic substances: Chemistry and reactions.In M. Schnitzer & S. U. Khan (eds.), Soil organic matter. Elsevier, New York.
Schomaker, C. E. 1968. Solar radiation measurements under a spruce and a birch canopy during May and June. Forest Sci.14: 31–38.
Schreiber, R. K. &R. Villela. 1985. Influence of airborne pollutants on forest wildlife. Pages 267–284in Air pollutant effects on forest ecosystems. Acid Rain Foundation, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Schuck, H. J., U. Blumel, L. Geier &P. Schütt. 1980. Schadbild und Ätiologie des Tannensterbens. I. Wichtung der Krankheitsymptome. Eur. J. Forest Pathol.10: 125–135.
Schulte-Bisping, H. &D. Murach. 1984. Inventur der Biomasse und ausgewählter chemischer Elemente in zwei unterschiedlich stark versaurten Fichtenjungbeständen im Hils. Ber. Forsch. Waldökol.2: 207–265.
Schulze, E. D., O. L. Lange, L. Kappen, L. Buschbom &M. Evanari. 1973. Stomatal responses to changes in temperature at increasing water stress. Planta110: 29–42.
Schürt, P. 1982. Das Krankheitsbild—Verschiedene Baumarten, gleiche Symptome. Bild Wiss.12: 86–101.
—. 1984. Der Wald Stirbt on Stress. C. Bertelsmann, München.
—. 1985. Das Waldsterben-Eine Pilzkrankheit? Forstwiss. Centralbl.104: 169–177.
—,H. Blaschke, E. Hoque, W. Koch, K. L. Lang &H. J. Schuck. 1983. Erste Ergebnisse einer botanischen Inventur des “Fichtensterbens.” Forstwiss. Centralbl.102: 158–166.
— &E. B. Cowling. 1985. Waldsterben—A general decline of forests in central Europe: Symptoms, development and possible causes. Pl. Disease69: 448–458.
Scott, J. T., T. G. Siccama, A. H. Johnson &A. R. Breisch. 1984. Decline of red spruce in the Adirondacks, New York. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club111: 438–444.
Shafer, S. R., L. E. Grand, R. I. Bruck &A. S. Heagle. 1985. Formation of ectomycorrhizae onPinus taeda seedlings exposed to simulated acidic rain. Canad. J. Forest Res.15: 66–71.
Sharma, M. L. 1984. Evapotranspiration from plant communities. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Shirley, H. L. 1934. Observations on drought injury in Minnesota forests. Ecology15: 42–50.
—. 1943. Is tolerance the capacity to endure shade? J. Forest.41: 399–445.
Shriner, D. S. 1978. Effect of simulated acid rain on host-parasite interactions in plant diseases. Phytopathology68: 213–218.
—. 1980. Vegetation surfaces: A platform for pollutant/parasite interactions. Pages 259–272in T. Y. Miller & A. Morrow (eds.), Polluted rain. Plenum Press, New York.
— &J. W. Johnston. 1981. Effects of simulated acidified rain on nodulation of leguminous plants byRhizobium species. Environ. Exp. Bot.21: 199–209.
Shugart, H. H. 1984. A theory of forest dynamics. Springer, New York.
—,T. R. Crow &J. M. Hett. 1973. Forest succession models: A rationale and methodology for modeling forest succession over large regions. Forest Sci.19: 203–212.
Siccama, T. G., M. Bliss &H. W. Vogelmann. 1982. Decline of red spruce in the Green Mountains of Vermont. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club109: 162–168.
—,W. H. Smith &D. L. Mader. 1980. Changes in lead, zinc, copper, dry weight and organic matter content of the forest floor of white pine stands in central Massachusetts over 16 years. Environ. Sci. Tech.14: 54–56.
Singh, B. R. 1984. Sulphate sorption by acid forest soils. 4. Kinetics and effects of temperature and moisture. Soil Sci.138: 440–447.
—,G. Abrahamsen &A. Stuanes. 1980. Effect of simulated acid rain on sulfate movement in acid forest soils. J. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.44: 75–80.
Skeffington, R. A. &T. M. Roberts. 1985. The effects of ozone and acid mist on Scots pine saplings. Oecologia65: 201–206.
Skiba, U. 1986. Effect of precipitation acidity on the chemistry and microbiology of Sitka spruce litter leachate. Environ. Poll.A42: 65–78.
—,T. J. Peirson-Smith &M. S. Cresser. 1986. Effects of simulated precipitation acidified with sulphuric and/or nitric acid on the throughfall chemistry of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and heather (Calluna vulgaris). Environ. Poll.B11: 255–270.
Smirnoff, N., P. Todd &R. G. Stewart. 1984. The occurrence of nitrate reduction in the leaves of woody plants. Ann. Bot.54: 363–374.
Smith, C. T., M. L. McCormack, J. W. Hornbeck &C. W. Martin. 1986. Nutrient and biomass removals from a red spruce-balsam fir whole tree harvest. Canad. J. Forest Res.16: 381–388.
Smith, H. 1973. Light quality and germination: Ecological implications.In H. Heydecker (ed.), Seed ecology. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania.
Smith, W. H. 1974. Air pollution. Effects on the structure and function of the temperate forest ecosystem. Environ. Poll.6: 111–129.
—. 1981. Air pollution and forests. Springer, New York.
Sobotka, A. 1974. Einfluss von Immissionen auf die Wurzelbildung mit begranten Wuchs bei der Fichte. Intern. Tagung über Luftverunreinigung und Forstwirtschaft. Marianske Lanze, Czechoslovakia.
Sollins, P., R. A. Goldstein, J. B. Mankin, C. E. Murphy &G. L. Swartzman. 1981. Analysis of forest growth and water balance using complex ecosystem models. Pages 537–565in D. E. Reichle (ed.), Dynamic properties of forest ecosystems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Sposito, G., A. L. Page & M. E. Frink. 1980. Effects of acid precipitation on soil leachate quality. Environ. Prot. Agency. Environ. Res. Lab. Rpt. 600/3-80-015, Corvallis, Oregon.
Sprugel, D. G. 1984. Density, biomass, productivity, and nutrient cycling changes during stand development in wave-regenerated balsam fir forests. Ecol. Monogr.54: 165–186.
— &F. H. Bormann. 1981. Natural disturbance and the steady state in high-altitude balsam fir forests. Science211: 390–393.
Spurr, S. H. &B. V. Barnes. 1980. Forest ecology, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Page 687.
Stark, R. W. 1965. Recent trends in forest entomology. Annual Rev. Entomol.10: 303–324.
Steiner, K. C. &L. H. McCormick. 1980. Differential response of paper birch provenances to aluminum in solution culture. Canad. J. Forest Res.10: 25–29.
Stephenson, S. L. &H. S. Adams. 1984. The spruce-fir forest on the summit of Mount Rogers in southwestern Virginia. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club111: 69–75.
Stienen, H. &J. Bauch. 1987. Element determination in tissues of spruce and fir seedlings from hydroponic and soil cultures simulating acidification and deacidification. Pl. & Soil78: 1–22.
Stoutjesdijk, P. 1972. Spectral transmission curves of some types of leaf canopies with a note on seed germination. Acta Bot. Neerl.21: 185–197.
Strayer, R. F., C. J. Lin &M. Alexander. 1981. Effect of simulated acid rain on nitrification and nitrogen mineralization in forest soils. J. Environ. Qual.10: 541–551.
Stroo, H. F. &M. Alexander. 1985. Effects of simulated acid rain on mycorrhizal infection ofPinus strobus. Water Air Soil Poll.25: 107–114.
—. 1986. Role of soil organic matter in the effect of acid rain on nitrogen mineralization. J. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.50: 1219–1223.
Stumm, W. 1985. Chemical processes in lakes. Wiley Interscience, New York.
Suchtung, H. 1948. Untersuchungen über die Ernährungsverhaltnisse des Waldes. X. Über die Wirkung des löslichen (reaktionsfähigen) Aluminiums zweier Waldböden auf die Kiefer. Z. Plfanz. Bodenk.42: 193–218.
Suffling, R. 1983. Stability and diversity in boreal and mixed temperate forests: A demographic approach. J. Environ. Managem.17: 359–371.
Swank, W. T., J. W. Fitzgerald &J. T. Ash. 1984. Microbial transformation of sulfate in forest soils. Science223: 182–184.
Swift, M. J., D. W. Heal &J. M. Anderson. 1979. Decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems. Blackwell, London.
Sydes, C. &J. P. Grime. 1981. Effect of tree leaf litter on herbaceous vegetation in deciduous woodland. I. Field investigations. J. Ecol.69: 237–248.
Tabatabai, M. A. 1985. Effect of acid rain on soils. CRC Crit. Rev. in Environ. Control15:65–110.
Tamm, C. O. 1976. Acid precipitation: Biological effects on soil and on forest. Ambio5: 235–238.
-,G. Wiklander & B. Popovic. 1976. Effects of applications of sulphuric acid to poor pine forests. Pages 1011–1024in D. Dochinger & T. Seliga (eds.), U.S. Dept. Agric. Forest. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rpt. NE-26, Upper Darby, Pennsylvania.
—,——. 1977. Effect of applications of sulphuric acid to poor pine forests. Water Air Soil Poll.8: 175–187.
Tesar, V. 1983. Immissionsschaden und Durchforstung. Allg. Forstz.38: 491–492.
Thompson, J. N. 1980. Treefalls and colonization patterns of temperate forest herbs. Amer. Midl. Naturalist104: 176–184.
Timmermann, B. N., N. C. Steelink &F. A. Loewus. 1984. Phytochemical adaptations to stress. Plenum Press, New York.
Tischner, R., U. Kaiser &A. Hüttermann. 1983. Untersuchungen zum Einfluss von Aluminium-ionen auf das Wachstum von Fichtenkeimlungen in Abhängigkeit vom pHwert. Forstwiss. Centralbl.102: 329–336.
Tobeissen, P. &M. B. Werner. 1980. Hardwood seedling survival under plantations of scotch pine and red pine in central New York. Ecology61: 25–29.
Traan, T. 1974. Effekt av pH pa mikrobiologisk nedbryting av organiske stoffer in Hydrokjeniiske og hydrobiologiske. SNSF Project IR 3/74.
Tranquillini, W. (ed.). 1981. Radial growth in trees. Mitt. Forstl. Bundes-Versuchsanst., Wien.
—. 1982. Frost drought and its ecological significance.In O. L. Lange, P. S. Nobel, C. B. Osmond & H. Ziegler (eds.), Physiological plant ecology II. Springer, Berlin.
Treshow, M. 1984. Air pollution and plant life. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Tributsch, H. 1985. Die Wasser-zugspannungs-insuffizienz Hypothese zum Waldsterben. Eur. J. Forest Pathol.15: 237–246.
Tubbs, C. H. 1969. The influence of light, moisture and seedbed on yellow birch regeneration. U.S. Dept. Agric. Forest Serv. Res. Paper NC-27. St. Paul, Minnesota.
Tyler, G. 1975. Heavy metal pollution and mineralization of nitrogen in forest soils. Nature255: 701–702.
—. 1978. Leaching rates of heavy metal ions in forest soils. Water Air Soil Poll.9: 137–148.
—,B. Mornojo &B. Nilsson. 1974. Effect of cadmium, lead and sodium salts on nitrification in a mull soil. Pl. & Soil40: 237–242.
Ulrich, B. 1978. Beitrag zur Frage der Stickstoffungebedürftigkeit: Stickstoffzufuhr aus der Luft und Stickstoffumsatz im Boden. Landwirt. Forsch.31: 111–119.
—. 1983a. A concept for forest ecosystem stability and of acid deposition as a driving force for destabilization. Pages 1–19in B. Ulrich & J. Pankrath (eds.), Effects of accumulation of air pollutants in forest ecosystems. Reidel, Hingham, Massachusetts.
—. 1983b. Soil acidity and its relation to acid deposition. Pages 127–146in B. Ulrich & J. Pankrath (eds.), Effects of accumulation of air pollutants in forest ecosystems. Reidel, Hingham, Massachusetts.
—. 1983c. Interaction of forest canopies with atmospheric constituents: SO2, alkali and earth alkali cations and chloride. Pages 33–45in B. Ulrich & J. Pankrath (eds.), Effects of accumulation of air pollutants in forest ecosystems. Reidel, Hingham, Massachusetts.
— &W. Keuffel. 1970. Auswirkung einer Bestandeskalkung zu Fichte auf den Nährstoffhaushalt des Bodens. Forst Archiv.41: 30–35.
—,R. Mayer &P. K. Khanna. 1980. Chemical changes due to acid precipitation in a loess-derived soil in central Europe. Soil Sci.130: 193–199.
VanRaalt, G. D. 1985. Impact of acid rain on forest growth in Canada. Vol. 1. Main Report. Canad. Forest. Serv., Ottawa, Ontario.
Vezina, P. E. 1956. Solar radiation available below thinned and unthinned balsam fir canopies. Canad. Dept. Forest., Forest Research Branch Rpt. 63. Quebec, Canada.
— &D. W. K. Boulter. 1966. The spectral composition of near ultraviolet and visible radiation beneath forest canopies. Canad. J. Bot,44: 1267–1284.
Vitousek, P. M. 1977. The regulation of element concentration in mountain streams in the northeastern United States. Ecol. Monogr.47: 65–97.
— &J. M. Melillo. 1979. Nitrate losses from disturbed forests: Patterns and mechanisms. Forest Sci.25: 605–619.
— &W. A. Reiners. 1975. Ecosystem succession and nutrient retention: A hypothesis. BioScience25: 376–481.
—,—,J. M. Melillo, C. C. Grier &J. R. Gosz. 1981. Nitrogen cycling and loss following forest perturbation: The components of response. Pages 115–127in G. W. Barrett & R. Rosenburg (eds.), Stress effects on natural ecosystems. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Vogelmann, H. W., G. J. Badger, M. Bliss &R. M. Klein. 1985. Forest decline on Camels Hump, Vermont. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club112: 274–287.
Waggoner, P. E. &W. E. Reifsnyder. 1968. Simulation of temperature, humidity and evaporation in a leaf canopy. J. Appl. Meteorol.7: 400–407.
Wallace, A. &W. L. Berry. 1983. Shift in threshold toxicity levels in plants when more than one trace metal contaminates simultaneously. Sci. Total Environ.28: 257–268.
Wang, B. S. P. 1965. Seedbed, canopy, and moisture effects on growth of yellow birch seedlings. Forest Chron.41: 106–107.
Wargo, P. M. 1980.Armillaria mellea: An opportunist. J. Arbor.6: 276–278.
Waring, R. H., J. J. Rogers &W. T. Swank. 1981. Water relations and hydrological cycles. Pages 205–264in D. E. Reichle (ed.), Dynamic properties of forest ecosystems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Warren-Wilson, J. 1965. Stand structure and light penetration. I. Analysis by inclined point quadrants. J. Appl. Ecol.2: 383–390.
Wassink, E., C. Richardson &G. A. Pieters. 1956. Photosynthetic adaptation to light intensity in leaves ofAcer pseudoplatanus. Acta Bot. Neerl.5: 247–256.
Wells, C. A., D. Whigham &H. Lieth. 1972. Investigations of mineral nutrient cycling in an upland Piedmont forest. J. Elisha Mitchell Soc.88: 66–78.
Westveld, M. 1953. Ecology and silviculture of the spruce-fir forests of eastern North America. J. Forest.51: 422–430.
White, J. 1985. The population structure of vegetation. Academic Press, New York.
White, P. S., M. D. MacKenzie &R. T. Busing. 1985. Natural disturbance and gap phase dynamics in southern Appalachian spruce-fir forests. Canad. J. Forest. Res.15: 233–240.
Whitmore, M. 1986. Effects of SO2 and NOx on plant growth. Pages 281–295in W. E. Winner, H. A. Mooney & R. A. Goldstein (eds.), Sulphur dioxide and vegetation: Physiology, ecology and policy issues. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.
Whittaker, R. H. &G. M. Woodwell. 1967. Surface area relations of woody plants and forest communities. Amer. J. Bot.54: 931–939.
Williamson, G. B. 1975. Pattern and seral composition in an old-growth beech-maple forest. Ecology56: 727–731.
Winner, W. E. &H. A. Mooney. 1980. Ecology of SO2 resistance. Oecologia44: 290–295.
—,— &R. A. Goldstein. 1985. Sulfur dioxide and vegetation: Physiology, ecology and policy issues. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.
Wisniewski, J. 1982. The potential acidity associated with dews, frosts and fogs. Water Air Soil Poll.17: 361–377.
Woods, D. B. &N. C. Turner. 1971. Stomatal response to changing light by four tree species of varying shade tolerance. New Phytol.70: 77–84.
Woodwell, G. M. 1970. Effects of pollution on the structure and physiology of ecosystems. Science168: 429–433.
Woolhouse, H. W. 1983. Toxicity and tolerance in the responses of plants to metals. Pages 246–300in O. L. Lange, P. S. Nobel, C. O. Osmond & H. Ziegler (eds.), Physiological plant ecology. III. Springer, Berlin.
World Meteorological Organization. 1972. Distribution of precipitation in mountainous areas. WMO/OMM 326, Geneva, Switzerland.
Wuenscher, J. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1970. Carbon dioxide transfer resistance as a factor in shade tolerance of tree seedlings. Canad. J. Bot.48: 453–456.
Yandow, T. S. &R. M. Klein. 1986. Nitrate reductase of primary roots of reed spruce seedlings. Effects of acidity and metal ions. Pl. Physiol.81: 723–725.
Zech, W. &E. Popp. 1983. Magnesiummangel einer der Gründe für das Fichten- und Tannensterben in N.O. Bayern. Forstwiss. Centralbl.102: 50–55.
Zedler, B., R. Plarre &G. M. Rothe. 1986. Impact of atmospheric pollution on the protein and amino acid metabolism of sprucePicea abies trees. Environ. Poll.A40: 193–212.
Zöttl, H. W. 1983. Zur Frage des toxischen Wirkung von Aluminum auf Pflanzen. Allg. Forstz.38: 206–208.
—. 1985a. Waldschaden und Nährelementversorgung. Düsseldorfer Geobat. Kolleq.2: 31–41.
—. 1985b. Heavy metal levels and cycling in forest ecosystems. Experientia41: 1104–1113.
— &R. Hüttl. 1985. Schadsymptome und Ernährungszustand von Fichtenbeständen im südwestdeutschen Alpenvorland. Allg. Forstz.40: 197–199.
— &F. Lamparski. 1981. Schwermetalle (Pb, Cd) in der Boden makrofauna des Südschwarzwaldes. Deutsch. Bodenkundl. Ges.32: 509–518.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
This review, with only minor alterations and additions, appeared in AMBIO, a publication of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 16: 86–93, 1987. The article in AMBIO did not contain references in the text to published research or a Literature Cited section.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Klein, R.M., Perkins, T.D. Primary and secondary causes and consequences of contemporary forest decline. Bot. Rev 54, 1–43 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858517
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858517