Skip to main content
Log in

Neuro- und Psychophysiologie des Schmerzes bei Kindern

Neuro- and psychophysiology of pain in children

  • Übersichten
  • Published:
Der Schmerz Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In the past the view has often been expressed that children are less sensitive to pain than adults as a result of the assumption that their nervous system is not as well developed. According to this theory, newborns were not supposed to feel pain at all, and for this reason minor surgery was often performed with inadequate anesthesia. Evidence in the more recent literature and the regular choice of “pain in children” as a topic for congresses exemplify the more and more widespread belief that children of all ages can feel pain and, relative to their developmental stage, suffer accordingly. However, there are significant differences in the way children experience and react to pain in comparison to adults, e.g., because of the difference in ability to evaluate acute or chronic pain cognitively. At birth, all human sensory organs have developed far enough to be full functional—as a result of the long gestational period, which is far longer than most other mammalian species. The results of animal experiments and observations in newborns have led to the conclusion that in humans and other mammals, the sensory pain system is fully developed at birth. Pain-related reactions can be seen in the motor, vegetative and endocrine pain parameters, and in the infant's crying. As the experience of pain increases, conditioned avoidance reactions can be noted, as can the child's experience of psychosomatic pain reinforcement by the care-givers, e.g., when a crying child in pain receives more attention from the persons around it. In pre-school children, the level of pain can be measured using appropriate instruments, as demonstrated in cases of chronic arthritis. As cognition develops further, the patient's own concept of health and sickness changes, as does the ability to express feelings of pain. In the pathogenesis of pain in children, the dominant types are nociceptor pain (e.g., as a result of trauma or infection) and pain resulting from malfunction (e.g., physical malposition, migraine), whereas nervous pain occurs less frequently. Pediatricians should pay particular attention to the treatment of acute and chronic pain in children.

Zusammenfassung

In der Vergangenheit wurde vielfach die Ansicht vertreten, daß Kinder, vor allem wegen ihres angeblich noch unausgereiften Nervensystems, eine gegenüber Erwachsenen verminderte Schmerzempfindlichkeit hätten. Neugeborene sollten danach überhaupt nicht unter Schmerz leiden können, und so ist verständlich, daß kleinere chirurgische Eingriffe häufig ohne ausreichende Anästhesie durch-geführt wurden. Wie die neuere Literatur und die Repräsentanz des Kinderschmerzes als Kongreßthema zeigen, setzt sich heute dagegen immer mehr die Erkenntnis durch, daß bei Kindern aller Altersstufen die Fähigkeit vorhanden ist, Schmerzen wahrzunehmen und unter ihnen entsprechend ihrem Entwicklungsstand auch zu leiden. Dabei bestehen jedoch erhebliche Unterschiede in der Reaktions- und Erlebnisweise gegenüber dem Erwachsenen, so z.B. wegen der unterschiedlichen Fähigkeit, die Bedeutung der akuten oder chronischen Schmerzen kognitiv zu bewerten. Alle Sinnesorgane des Menschen sind bei der Geburt bereits zur Funktionsfähigkeit entwickelt, wegen der langen Gestationsdauer sogar weiter als bei anderen Säugerspezies. Aus Tierexperimenten und aus Beobachtungen bei Neugeborenen läßt sich folgern, daß auch das sensorische Schmerzsystem des Menschen und der anderen Säuger bei der Geburt bereits entwickelt ist. Schmerzbezogene Reaktionen lassen sich bei der Motorik, den vegetativen und endokrinen Schmerzparametern und im Schreien erkennen. Mit zunehmenden Schmerzerfahrungen treten auch konditionierte Vermeidungsreaktionen auf, jedoch auch psychosomatische Schmerzverstärkungen durch Krankheitsgewinne, z.B durch eine vermehrte Zuwendung der Umgebung bei Schmerzäuße

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Literatur

  1. Anand KJS, Aynsley-Green A (1988) Does the newborn infant require potent anesthesia during surgery? Answers from a randomized trial of halothane anesthesia. In: Dubner R, Gebhart GF, Bond MR (eds) Proceedings of the Vth World Congress on Pain. Pain research and clinical management, vol 3. Elsevier, Amsterdam, p 329

    Google Scholar 

  2. Beal JA, Bicknell HR Jr (1985) Development and maturation of neurons in the substantia gelatinosa (SG) of the rat spinal cord. In: Rowe M, Willis WD Jr (eds) Development, organization, and processing in somatosensory pathways. Liss, New York, p 23

    Google Scholar 

  3. Beales JG, Lennox-Holt PJ, Keen JH, Mellor VP (1983) Children with juvenile chronic arthritis: their beliefs about their illness and therapy. Ann Rheum Dis 42:481

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Becker M (1988) Idiopathische rezidivierende Bauchschmerzen (IRB). In: Pathmann R (Hrsg) Chronische Schmerzen im Kindesalter. Diagnose und Therapie. Hippokrates, Stuttgart, S 164

    Google Scholar 

  5. Bradley RM, Mistretta CM (1975) Fetal sensory receptors. Physiol Rev 55:352

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Chahl LA, Szolcsanyi J, Lembeck F (eds) (1984) Antidromic vasodilatation and neurogenic inflammation. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest

    Google Scholar 

  7. Craig KD, Grunau RVE, Branson SM (1988) Age-related aspects of pain: pain in children. In: Dubner R, Gebhart GF, Bond MR (eds) Proceedings of the Vth World Congress on Pain. Pain research and clinical management, vol 3. Elsevier, Amsterdam, p 317

    Google Scholar 

  8. Dubner R, Gebhart GF, Bond MR (1988) Proceedings of the Vth World Congress on Pain. Pain research and clinical management, vol 3. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  9. Duncan IJH, Molony V (eds) (1986) Assessing pain in farm animals. Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg

    Google Scholar 

  10. Ferrington DG, Rowe MJ (1985) Organization and signalling in developing tactile sensory pathways. In: Rowe M, Willis WD Jr (eds) Development, organization, and processing in somatosensory pathways. Liss, New York, p 31

    Google Scholar 

  11. Feuerstein M, Barr RG, Francoeur TE, Houle M, Rafman S (1982) Potential biobehavioral mechanisms of recurrent abdominal pain in children. Pain 13:287

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Fitzgerald M (1987) The functional development of C fibers and their central connections. In: Schmidt RF, Schaible H-G, Vahle-Hinz C (eds) Fine afferent nerve fibers and pain. VCH, Weinheim, p 53

    Google Scholar 

  13. Fitzgerald M, Gibson S (1984) The postnatal physiological and neurochemical development of peripheral sensory C fibers. Neuroscience 13:933

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Gaffney A, Dunne EA (1986) Developmental aspects of children's definitions of pain. Pain 26:105

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Gottlieb G (1976) Conceptions of prenatal development. Psychol Rev 83:215

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Goymann V (1988) Erkrankungen des Bewegungsapparates. In: Pothmann R (Hrsg) Chronische Schmerzen im Kindesalter. Diagnose und Therapie. Hippokrates, Stuttgart, S 114

    Google Scholar 

  17. Grunau RVE, Craig KD (1987) Pain expression in neonates: facial action and cry. Pain 28:395

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Hall WG, Oppenheim RW (1987) Developmental psychobiology: prenatal, perinatal and early postnatal aspects of behavioral development. In: Rosenzweig MR, Porter LW (eds) Annual review of psychology, vol 38. Annual Reviews Inc., Palo Alto, p 91

    Google Scholar 

  19. Jeans ME (1983) Pain in children—a neglected area. In: Firestone P, McGrath P, Feldman W (eds) Advances in behavioral medicine with children and youth. Lawrence Erlbaum. Hillsdale, p 23

    Google Scholar 

  20. Johnston CC, Strada ME (1986) Acute pain response in infants: a multidimensional description. Pain 24:373

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Laaksonen AL, Laine V (1961) A comparative study of joint pain in adult and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 20:386

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Lampante L (1973) Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der experimentellen Prüfung der Analgetika-Wirkung im frühen Säuglingsalter. Med Dissertation, Universität Düsseldorf

  23. Lavigne JV, Schulein MJ, Hahn YS (1986) Psychological aspects of painful medical conditions in children. I. Developmental aspects and assessment. Pain 27:133

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Lenard HG (1986) Ahästhesie bei Früh- und Neugeborenen. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 111:1747

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Levine JD, Gordon NC (1982) Pain in prelingual children and its evaluation by pain-induced vocalization. Pain 14:85

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Liersch R (1988) Brustschmerzen. In: Pothmann R (Hrsg) Chronische Schmerzen im Kindesalter. Diagnose und Therapie. Hippokrates, Stuttgart, S 152

    Google Scholar 

  27. McGrath PA, deVeber P, Leveret L (1986) The management of acute pain evoked by medical procedures in children with cancer. J Pain Symptom Management 1:145

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. McGrath P, Unruh A (1987) Chronic pain in childhood. Pain research and clinical management, vol 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  29. McGraw MB (1945) The neuromuscular maturation of the human infant. Hafner, New York

    Google Scholar 

  30. Meier H (Hrsg) (1987) Analgesie bei Kindern. Indikationen, Applikationsformen. Nebenwirkungen. perimed, Erlangen

  31. Mortier W (1988) Muskel- und Nervenerkrankungen. In: Pothmann R (Hrsg) Chronische Schmerzen im Kindesalter. Diagnose und Therapie. Hippokrates, Stuttgart, S 103

    Google Scholar 

  32. Owens ME (1984) Pain in infancy: conceptual and methodological issues. Pain 20:213

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Owens ME, Todt EH (1984) Pain in infancy: neonatal reaction to a heel lance. Pain 20:77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Peiper A (1926) Untersuchungen über die Reaktionszeit im Säuglingsalter. II. Reaktionszeit auf Schmerzreiz. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 32:42

    Google Scholar 

  35. Pothmann R (Hrsg) (1988) Chronische Schmerzen im Kindesalter. Diagnose und Therapie. Hippokrates, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  36. Pothmann R (1988) Schmerz und Schmerztherapie bei Kindern. Der Schmerz 2:3–8

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Purcell-Jones G, Dormon F, Sumner E (1988) Paediatrics anaesthetist's perceptions of neonatal and infant pain. Pain 33:181

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Ross DM, Ross SA (1988) Childhood pain. Current issues, research, and management. Urban & Schwarzenberg, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  39. Rowe M, Willis WD Jr (eds) (1985) Development, organization, and processing in somatosensory pathways. Neurology and neurobiology, vol 14, Liss, New York

    Google Scholar 

  40. Schechter NL, Allen DA, Hansen K (1986) Status of pediatric pain control: comparison of hospital analgesic usage in children and adults. Pediatrics 77:11

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Scott PJ, Ansell BM, Huskisson EC (1977) Measurement of pain in juvenile chronic polyarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 36:186

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Seemann H, Schug S, Zech D, Zimmermann M (1988) Bericht über den „Second International Congress on Cancer Pain”, 14.–17. Juli 1988, New York, USA. Der Schmerz 2:216

  43. Semba E, Shiosaka S, Hara Y, Inagaki S, Sakanaka M, Takatsuki K, Kawai Y, Tohyama M (1982) Ontogeny of the peptidergic system in the rat spinal cord: immunohistochemical analysis. J Comp Neurol 208:54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Struppler A, Ochs G (1988) Pathophysiologie und Therapie der Zoster-Neuralgie. In: Lücking CH, Thoden U, Zimmermann M (Hrsg) Nervenschmerzen. Schmerzstudien, Bd 7, G. Fischer, Stuttgart, S 92

    Google Scholar 

  45. Tal M, Sharav Y (1984) Sensations and reflex activity evoked by electric stimulation of developing teeth in children. Pain Suppl 2:S 28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Thompson KL, Varni JW (1986) Developmental cognitive-biobehavioral approach to pediatric pain assessment. Pain 25:283

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Willer JC (1977) Comparative study of perceived pain and nociceptive flexion reflex in man. Pain 3:69

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Zimmermann M (1984) Physiologie von Nozizeption und Schmerz. In: Zimmermann M, Handwerker HO (Hrsg) Schmerz. Konzepte und ärztliches Handeln. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, S 1

    Google Scholar 

  49. Zimmermann M (1985) Behavioral investigations of pain in animals. In: Wegner RM (ed) 2nd European Symposium on Poultry Welfare. Federal Agricultural Research Centre. Braunschweig-Völkenrode, p 28

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zimmermann, M. Neuro- und Psychophysiologie des Schmerzes bei Kindern. Schmerz 3, 73–79 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02527482

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02527482

Navigation