Zusammenfassung
Anhand neuer embryologischer, morphologischer, physiologischer und biochemischer Befunde werden die vogelspezifischen Eigentümlichkeiten von drei endokrinen Systemen diskutiert: Pinealkomplex, hypothalamo-hypophysäres System und gastrointestinales Endokrinium.
Trotz der allgemein besonders starken Beeinflußbarkeit der Vögel durch photoperiodische Veränderungen ist bei ihnen der Pinealkomplex zu einer intracranialen endokrinen Drüse reduziert. Diese Epiphyse (Pinealorgan) zeigt unter experimentellen Bedingungen eine außerordentliche Unabhängigkeit von photoperiodischer Steuerung. Das völlige Fehlen des Pinealkomplexes bei den relativ nahe verwandten Krokodilen deutet auf die Möglichkeit hin, daß dies wohl eher phylogenetisch als funktionell zu erklären ist.
Das hypothalamo-hypophysäre System ist im wesentlichen reptilienartig, zeigt aber drei auffallende Spezialisierungen: 1. Eine hochentwickelte Eminentia mediana, welche aus zwei getrennten Regionen besteht. 2. Die Pars distalis ist mit der Eminentia so verbunden, daß ihre beiden Unterabteilungen (cephaler und caudaler Lappen) von beiden Regionen der Eminentia über getrennte Portalgefäße versorgt werden. 3. Den Vögeln als Gruppe fehlt die Pars intermedia.
Die auffallendsten Besonderheiten des gastrointestinalen Endokriniums stehen mit dem Inselorgan in Verbindung: insulinproduzierende B-Zellen und glukagonbildende A-Zellen sind weitgehend in besondere Inseln getrennt. Im Gegensatz zu dem der anderen Tetrapoden ist das Fettgewebe der Vögel insulin-unempfindlich. Die endokrine Kontrolle des Fettgewebes erfolgt über eine indirekte anabole Route (durch prolaktinstimulierte Lipogenese in der Leber) sowie eine direkte katabole Route durch Pankreasglukagon.
Bei einem Vergleich mit anderen Gnathostomengruppen zeigen Epiphyse, Adenohypophyse und Inselorgan einen besonders starken Trend zur Unabhängigkeit von direkter Innervation. In bezug auf Adenohypophyse und Inselorgan repräsentieren dabei die Vögel das entgegengesetzte Extrem zu den Knochenfischen (Teleostier), bei denen diese Drüsen besonders stark innerviert sind.
Die Vögel und Teleostier werden kurz mit den Myxiniden verglichen, deren endokrines System besonders schwach entwickelt ist. Die Unterschiede zwischen den drei Gruppen werden durch drei verschiedene Wege der Anpassung an Umweltbedingungen gedeutet: 1. Aktive Anpassung durch ein hochentwickeltes neuro-endokrines Kontrollsystem (Teleostier). 2. Passive, osmokonforme Anpassung, welche ein stark entwickeltes Endokrinium überflüssig macht (Myxiniden). 3. Vermeidung ungünstiger Umweltbedingungen durch Flugvermögen; eine verfeinerte, sekretomotorische Kontrolle der endokrinen Drüsen des normalen Stoffwechsels ist unnötig (Vögel).
Summary
Against the background of recent embryological, morphological, physiological and biochemical studies, peculiarities of three different avian endocrine systems are discussed: pineal complex, hypothalamo-hypophysial system, and gastrointestinal endocrine system.
Despite the marked photosensitivity of the birds in general, their pineal complex is reduced to an intracranial pineal gland, which shows a very high degree of functional autonomy when released from photoperiodic control. The complete absence of the pineal complex in the alligators suggests that this may be due to phylogenetic rather than adaptive reasons.
The hypothalamo-hypophysial system is basically of reptilian type, but shows three marked specializations: (1) the highly developed median eminence consists of two distinct regions; (2) the Pars distalis is located so, that both of its subdivisions (cephalic and caudal lobe) appear to receive distinctly separate vascularisation from the median eminence; (3) the birds as a group lack a Pars intermedia.
Within the gastrointestinal endocrine system of birds, the most obvious peculiarities identified so far are connected with the islet organ: insulin-producing B-cells and glucagonproducing A-cells are largely separated in different islets, and contrary to the situation in other tetrapodes, the avian adipose tissue is insulin-insensitive. The endocrine control of the adipose tissue involves an indirect anabolic route via prolactin-induced hepatic lipogenesis, and a direct catabolic route, via pancreatic glucagon.
When compared with other groups of gnathostomes, the pineal gland, adenohypophysis and islet organ of the birds show a particularly strong trend towards independence from secretomotor innervation. With respect to the adenohypophysial and islet innervation, the birds represent the opposite extreme to the teleosts, whose adenohypophysis and islet organ are particularly well innervated.
Birds and teleosts are compared with the Myxinidae, whose endocrine system is particularly poorly developed. It is hypothesized that the differences between the endocrine systems of these three groups reflect three different ways of adjustment to environmental conditions: (1) teleosts actively adjust to a continuous challenge from external osmolarity, whose control has to be integrated with the “milieu interne” and nutritional factors. They developed a highly sophisticated control system of their endocrines, which is capable of overriding humoral stimuli by nervous interference. (2) The Myxinidae passively conform with the osmotic environment, which makes a highly developed endocrine control system unnecessary. (3) The birds are shielded from environmental factors by a specialized body surface, and they can easily avoid unfavorable conditions by flight. This makes a sophisticated and fast acting (i.e. nervous) control of such endocrines unnecessary, which are involved in the maintenance of the normal “milieu interne”.
Wir danken MissKathleen Matt für die Hilfe bei der Anfertigung der Zeichnungen.
Literatur
Acher, R. (1974): Recent discoveries in the evolutions of proteins. Angew. Chem. Intern. Edit. 13: 185–197.
Andrew, A. (1975): APUD cells in the endocrine pancreas and the intestine of chick embryos. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 26: 485–495.
Asplund, K., A. Andersson, C. Jarrousse &C. Hellerström (1975): Function of the fetal endocrine pancreas. Israel J. Med. Sci. 11: 581–590.
Assenmacher, I. (1958): Recherches sur le contrôle hypothalamique de la fonction gonadotrope préhypophysaire chez le canard. Arch. Anat. micr. Morph. exptl. 47: 447–472.
Axelrod, J. (1974): The pineal gland: a neurochemical transducer. Science 184: 1341–1348.
Ball, J. N. &B. I. Baker (1969): The pituitary gland: anatomy and histophysiology. In: Fish Physiology (eds.W. S. Hoar &D. J. Randall. Academic Press, New York), Vol. 2: 1–110.
Bargmann, W. (1943): Die Epiphysis cerebri. In: Handbuch der mikroskopischen Anatomie des Menschen (ed.W. von Möllendorf. Springer, Berlin), Vol. VI/4: 309–502.
Barrington, E. J. W. (1972): The pancreas and intestine. In: The biology of lampreys (eds.M. W. Hardisty &I. C. Potter. Academic Press, London), Vol. 2: 135–169.
Benson, B., M. J. Matthews &V. J. Hruby (1976): Characterization and effects of a bovine pineal antigonadotropic peptide. Amer. Zool. 16: 17–24.
Bern, H. A. (1975): Prolactin and osmoregulation. Amer. Zool. 15: 937–949.
Binkley, S. (1976): Comparative biochemistry of the pineal glands of birds and mammals. Amer. Zool. 16: 57–65.
Butler, D. G. (1973): Structure and function of the adrenal gland of fishes. Amer. Zool. 13: 839–879.
Cardinali, D. P., C. A. Nagle, J. H. Denari, G. D. P. Bedes &J. M. Rosner (1973): Lack of effects of light on the rat pineal inorgan culture. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 21: 573–577.
Chen, C. L., E. J. Bixler, A. I. Weber &J. Meites (1968): Hypothalamic stimulation of prolactin release from the pituitary of turkey hens and poults. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 11: 489–494.
Cheng, H. &C. P. Leblond (1974): Origin, differentiation and renewal of the four main epithelial cell types in the mouse small intestine. III. Entero-endocrine cells. Amer. J. Anat. 141: 503–520.
Collin, J.-P. (1971): Differentiation and regression of the cells of the sensory line in the epiphysis cerebri. In: The pineal gland, A Ciba Foundation Symposium (eds.G. E. W. Wolstenholme &J. Knight. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh): 79–125.
Desbals, P., B. Desbals &P. Mialhe (1967): Variation des lipides plasmatiques et hépatiques chez le canard totalement dépancréaté. J. Physiol. 59: 232.
Dobbs, R., H. Sakurai, H. Sasaki, G. Faloona, I. Valverde, D. Baetens, L. Orci &R. Unger (1975): Glucagon: role in the hyperglycemia of diabetes mellitus. Science 187: 544–547.
Dockray, G. J. (1975): Comparative studies on secretin. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 25: 203–210.
Dodd, J. M. (1975): The hormones of sex and reproduction and their effects in fish and lower chordates: twenty years on. Amer. Zool. 15 (Suppl 1): 137–171.
Dominic, C. J. &R. M. Singh (1969): Anterior and posterior groups of portal vessels in the avian pituitary. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 13: 22–26.
——Dies. &R. M. Singh (1971): Further observations on the incidence of anterior and posterior groups of portal vessels in the avian pituitary. J. Endocrinol. 49: 355–356.
Dubois, P. M., C. Paulin &M. P. Dubois (1976): Gastrointestinal somatostatin cells in the human fetus. Cell Tiss. Res. 166: 179–184.
Duvernoy, H. (1972): The vascular architecture of the median eminence. In: Brain-Endocrine Interaction. Median Eminence: Structure and Function. (eds.K. Knigge, D. E. Scott &A. Weindl. Karger, Basel); 79–108.
——Ders.,F. Gainet &J. G. Koritké (1969): Sur la vascularisation de l'hypophyse des oiseaux. J. Neuro-visceral Relations 31: 109–127.
Eakin, R. M. (1973): The third eye. University of California Press Berkeley.
Ebels, I. (1976): Isolation of avian and mammalian pineal indoles and antigonadotropic factors. Amer. Zool. 16: 5–16.
Edinger, T. (1956): Paired pineal organs. Progr. Neurobiol. 1: 120–129.
Ellis, L. C. (1976): Peripheral and CNS effects of the pineal gland: target enzymes common to tissues and species. Amer. Zool. 16: 67–78.
Epple, A. (1961): Über Beziehungen zwischen Feinbau und Jahresperiodik des Inselorgans von Vögeln. Z. Zellforsch. 53: 731–758.
——Ders. (1963): Zur vergleichenden Zytologis des Inselorgans. Zool. Anz. Suppl. 27: 461–470.
——Ders. (1965): Weitere Untersuchungen über ein drittes Pankreashormon. Zool. Anz. Suppl. 29: 459–470.
——Ders. (1968): Körpergewicht und Pankreas von Küken bei einseitiger Diät. Zool. Anz. 181: 190–195.
——Ders. &J. E. Brinn (1975): Islet Histophysiology: evolutionary correlations. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 27: 320–349.
——Ders. &D. S. Farner (1967): The pancreatic islets of the White-crowned sparrow,Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii, during its annual cycle and under experimental conditions. Z. Zellforsch. 71: 185–197.
——Ders. &T. L. Lewis (1973): Comparative histophysiology of the pancreatic islets. Amer. Zool. 13: 567–590.
Dies. (1976): Metabolic effects of pancreatectomy and hypophysectomy in the yellow eel,Anguilla rostrata LeSueur. (druckfertiges Manuskript).
Erspamer, V. (1954): Il sistema cellulare enterochromaffine e l'enteramina (5-idrossitriptamina). Rendic. sci. farmital. 1: 5–193.
Falkmer, S., N. W. Thomas &L. Boquist (1974): Endocrinology of the cyclostomata. In: Chemical Zoology (eds.M. Florkin &B. T. Scheer. Academic Press, New York). Vol. 8: 195–257.
Farina, J., J. Pinto, J. C. Basabe &R. A. Chieri (1975): Aspects of intermediary metabolism and insulin level in the penguin (Pygoscelis papua). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 27: 209–213.
Farner, D. S. (1975): Photoperiodic controls in the secretion of gonadotropins in birds. Amer. Zool. 15 (Suppl. 1): 117–135.
Ders.,J. R. King &M. H. Stetson (1968): The control of fat metabolism in migratory birds. In: Progress in endocrinology. Proc. 3rd Int. Congr. Endocrinol. Excerpta Medica International Congress Series 184: 152–157.
Follett, B. K. (1973): The neuroendocrine regulation of gonadotropin secretion in avian reproduction. In: Breeding Biology of Birds (ed.D. S. Farner. National Academy of Sciences, Washington D. C.), pp. 209–261.
Fontaine, M. &M. Olivereau (1975): Some aspects of the organization and evolution of the vertebrate pituitary. Amer. Zool. 15 (Suppl. 1): 61–79).
Fujita, T. (1968): D cell, the third endocrine element of the pancreatic islet. Arch. Histol. Jap. 29: 1–40.
——Ders. &S. Kobayashi (1973): The cells and hormones of the GPE endocrine system. The current of studies. In: Gastroentero pancreatic endocrine system. A cell-biological approach. (ed.T. Fujita. Igaku Shoin Ltd., Tokyo), pp. 1–16.
Gogan, F. (1968): Sensibilité hypothalamique à la testosterone chez le canard. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 11: 316–327.
Graber, J. W., A. I. Frankel &A. V. Nalbandow (1967): Hypothalamic center influencing the release of LH in the Cockerel. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 9: 187–192.
Gross, R. &P. Mialhe (1974): Free fatty acidglucagon feedback mechanism. Diabetol. 10: 277–283.
Gundy, G. C., C. L. Ralph &G. Z. Wurst (1975): Parietal eyes in lizards: zoogeographical correlates. Science 190: 671–673.
Hadley, M. E. &J. T. Bagnara (1975): Regulation of release and mechanism of action of MSH. Amer. Zool. 15 (Suppl. 1): 81–104.
Hanke, W. (1974): Die hormonale Regulation des Stoffwechsels bei Amphibien. Fortschr. Zool. 22: 431–455.
Hazelwood, R. L. (1972): The intermediary metabolism of birds. In: Avian biology (eds.D. S. Farner &J. R. King. Academic Press, New York). Vol. 2: 471–526.
——Ders. (1973): The avian endocrine pancreas. Amer. Zool. 13: 699–709.
Ders. (1976): Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., im Druck.
Hellman, B. &A. Lernmark (1969): Inhibition of the in vitro secretion of insulin by an extract of pancreatic α1 cells. Endocrinol. 84: 1484–1488.
Hökfelt, T., S. Efendic, C. Hellerström, O. Johansson, R. Luft &A. Arimura (1975): Cellular localization of somatostatin in endocrine-like cells and neurons of the rat with special references to the A1-cells of the pancreatic islets and to the hypothalamus. Acta endocrinol. 80 (Suppl. 200): 1–41.
Holmes, R. L. &J. N. Ball (1974): The pituitary gland. A comparative account. Cambridge University Press, London.
Ishii, S., T. Hirano &H. Kobayashi (1962): Neurohypophyseal hormones in the avian median eminence and Pars nervosa. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 2: 433–440.
Kappers, J. A. (1971): Innervation of the pineal organ: phylogenetic aspects and comparison of the neural control of the mammalian pineal with that of other neuroendocrine systems. Mem. Soc. Endocrinol. 19: 27–48.
Kemenade, J. A. M., van &J. W. Kremers (1975): The pituitary of the coelacanth fishLatimeria chalumnae Smith: general structure and adenohypophysial cell types. Cell Tiss. Res. 163: 291–311.
Kindler, G. (1969): Elektronenmikroskopische Untersuchungen an den dunklen Inseln in Pankreas der Ente. Anat. Anz. 125 (Ergänzungsheft): 169–176.
Kobayashi, H. &M. Wada (1973): Neuroendocrinology in birds. In: Avian Biology (eds.D. S. Farner &J. R. King. Academic Press, New York). Vol. 3: 287–348.
Krug, E. &P. Mialhe (1971): Pancreatic and intestinal glucagon in the duck. Horm. Metab. Res. 3: 24–27.
——Dies. (1975): The contribution of the pancreas and the intestine to the regulation of lipolysis in birds. I. Existence of highly potent lipolytic factors in ileum extracts. Horm. Metab. Res. 7: 24–27.
Lagios, M. (1975): The pituitary gland of the coelacanthLatimeria chalumnae Smith. Gen Comp. Endocrinol. 25: 126–146.
Lange, R. (1973): Histochemistry of the islets of Langerhans. In: Handbuch der Histochemie (eds.W. Graumann &K. Neumann. Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart). Vol. VIII/1: 1–283.
Langslow, D. R. &C. N. Hales (1971): The role of the endocrine pancreas and catecholamines in the control of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. In: Physiology and biochemistry of the domestic fowl. (eds. D. J. Bell & B. W. Freeman. Academic Press, London). Vol. 1: 521–548.
Larsson, L. I., F. Sundler, R. Hakanson, H. G. Pollock &J. R. Kimmel (1974): Localization of APP, a postulated new hormone, to a pancreatic endocrine cell type. Histochem. 42: 377–382.
Laurent, F. &P. Mialhe (1976): Insulin and the glucose-glucagon feedback mechanism in the duck. Diabetol. 12: 23–33.
Lewis, T. L. &A. Epple (1972): Pancreatectomy in the eel: effect on serum glucose and cholesterol. Science 178: 1286–1288.
Lowry, P. J. &A. P. Scott (1975): The evolution of vertebrate corticotrophin and melanocy te stimulating hormone. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 26: 16–23.
Lotstra, F., W. van der Loo &W. Gepts (1974): Are gastrin-cells present in mammalian pancreatic islets? Diabetol. 10: 290–302.
Menaker, M. &A. Oksche (1974): The avian pineal organ. In: Avian Biology (eds. D. S. Farner & J. R. King. Academic Press, New York). Vol. 4: 79–118.
——Ders. &N. Zimmerman (1976): Role of the pineal in the circadian system of birds. Amer. Zool. 16: 45–55.
Mikami, S. I. &K. Mutoh (1971): Light- and electron-microscopic studies of the pancreatic islets cells in the chicken under normal and experimental conditions. Z. Zellforsch. 116: 205–227.
Mikami, S. I., K. Kawamura, A. Oksche &D. S. Farner (1976): The fine structure of the hypothalamic neurons of the white-crowned sparrow,Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii (Passeriformes: Fringillidae). II. Magnocellular and parvocellular nuclei of the rostral hypothalamus. Cell Tiss. Res. 165: 415–434.
Moy-Thomas, J. A. (1971): Palaeozoic Fishes (extensively revised byR. S. Miles), Second Edition. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Nicoll, C. S. (1974): Physiological actions of prolactin. In: Handbook of Physiology, Section 7, Endocrinology (eds. E. Knobil & W. H. Sawyer), Vol. IV/2: 253–292.
Nozaki, M., H. Kobayashi, M. Yanagisawa &T. Bando (1975): Monamine fluorescence in the median eminence of the Japanes quail,Coturnix coturnix japonica, following medial basal hypothalamic deafferentation. Cell Tiss. Res. 164: 425–434.
Oksche, A. (1965): Survey of the development and comparative morphology of the pineal organ. Progr. Brain Res. 10: 4–29.
——Ders. &D. S. Farner (1974): Neurohistological studies of the hypothalamo-hypophysial system ofZonotrichia leucophrys gambelii. With special attention to its role in the control of reproduction. Advances Anat. Embryol. Cell Biol. 43: 1–136.
Olsson, R. (1968): Evolutionary significance of the „prolactin“ cells in teleostomean fishes. In: „Nobel Symposium“ 4: Current problems of lower vertebrate phylogeny. (ed.T. Orvig. Almquist & Wicksell, Stockholm), pp. 455–472.
Orci, L., D. Baetens, M. P. Dubois &C. Rufener (1975): Evidence for the D-cell of the pancreas secreting somatostatin. Horm. Metab. Res. 7: 400–402.
Pearse, A. G. E. &T. Takor Takor (1976): Neuroendocrine embryology and the APUD concept. Clin. Endocrinol. 5 (Suppl.): 229 s-244 s.
——Ders.,J. M. Polak, S. R. Bloom, C. Adams, J. R. Dryburgh &J. C. Brown (1974): Enterochromaffin cells of the mammalian small intestine as the source of motilin. Virchows Arch. B. Cell Path. 16: 111–120.
Penhos, J. C. &E. Ramey (1973): Studies on the endocrine pancreas of amphibians and reptiles. Amer. Zool. 13: 667–698.
——Ders.,C. H. Wu, M. Reitman, E. Sodero, R. White &R. Levine (1967): Effect of several hormones after total pancreatectomy in alligators. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 8: 32–43.
Petutschnigk, D. (1972): Zur Frage der hypothalamischen Steuerung der LTH-Sekretion bei Tauben. Endokrinologie 60: 247–250.
Pictet, R. L., L. B. Rall, P. Phelps &W. J. Rutter (1976): The neural crest and the origin of the insulin-producing and other gastrointestinal hormone-producing cells. Science 191: 191–193.
Polak, J. M. (1974): Endocrine cells of the gut. In: Chronic Duodenal Ulcer (ed.C. Wastell. Butterworths, London), pp. 27–52.
——Ders.,A. G. E. Pearse, J.-C. Garaud &S. R. Bloom (1974 a): Cellular localization of a vasoactive intestinal peptide in the mammalian and avian gastrointestinal tract. Gut 15: 720–724.
——Ders.,A. G. E. Pearse, C. Adams &J.-C. Garaud (1974 b): Immunohistological and ultrastructural studies on the endocrine polypeptide (APUD) cells of the avian gastrointestinal tract. Experientia 30: 564–567.
Ders.,T. E. Adrian, M. G. Bryant, S. R. Bloom, P. Heitz &A. G. E. Pearse (1976): Pancreatic polypeptide in insulomas, gastrinomas, vipomas and glucagonomas. Lancet (1976): 328–330.
Quay, W. B. (1974): Pineal chemistry. C. C. Thomas, Springfield.
Ralph, C. L. (1970): Structure and alleged functions of avian pineals. Amer. Zool. 10: 217–235.
——Ders. (1975): The pineal complex: A retrospective view. Amer. Zool. 15 (Suppl. 1): 105–116.
——Ders. (1976): Correlations of melatonin content in pineal gland, blood, and brain of some birds and mammals. Amer. Zool. 16: 35–43.
Reiter, R. J. (1973): Comparative physiology: pineal gland. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 35: 305–328.
——Ders. &R. J. Hester (1966): Interrelationships of the pineal gland, superior cervical ganglia and the photoperiod in the regulation of endocrine systems of hamsters. Endocrinol. 79: 1168–1170.
——Ders.,A. J. Lukaszyk, M. K. Vaughan &D. E. Blask (1976): New horizons of pineal research. Amer. Zool. 16: 93–101.
Robertson, J. D. (1974): Osmotic and ionic regulation in cyclostomes. In: Chemical Zoology (eds. M. Florkin & B. T. Scheer. Academic Press, New York), Vol. 8: 149–193.
Rosner, J. M., J. H. Denari, C. A. Nagle, D. P. Cardinali, G. D. de Pérez Bedés &L. Orsi (1972): Direct action of light on serotonin metabolism and RNA synthesis in duck pineal explants. Life Sci. 11: 829–836.
Schally, A. V., A. Arimura &A. J. Kastin (1973): Hypothalamic regulatory hormones. Science 179: 341–350.
Scharrer, B. (1972): Principles of neuroendocrine communication. In: Brain-Endocrine Integration. Median eminence: Structure and Function. (eds.K. Knigge, D. E. Scott & A. Weindl). Karger, Basel, pp. 3–6.
Shapiro, M., W. E. Nicholson, D. N. Orth, W. M. Mitchell &D. P. Island (1972): Preliminary characterisation of pituitary melanocyte stimulating hormones of several vertebrate species. Endocrinol. 90: 249–255.
Sharp, P. J. &B. K. Follett (1969): The effect of hypothalamic lesions on gonadotropin release in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Neuroendocrinol. 5: 205–218.
——Ders.,E. Haase &H. M. Fraser (1975): Immunofluorescent localization of sites binding anti-synthetic LHRH serum in the median eminence of the greenfinch (Chloris chloris L.). Cell. Tiss. Res. 162: 83–91.
Siopes, T. D., &W. O. Wilson (1974): Exraocular modification of photoreception in intact and pinealectomizedCoturnix. Poultry Sci. 53: 2035–2041.
Smith, P. H. (1975): The effects of selectiv partial pancreatectomy on pancreatic islet cell morphology in the Japanese quail. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 26: 310–320.
Ders. &D. Porte (1976): Neuropharmacology of the pancreatic islets. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. 16 (im Druck).
Sterba, G. (Herausgeber) (1969): Zirkumventrikuläre Organe und Liquor. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena.
Stetson, M. H. (1969): The role of the median eminence in control of photoperiodically induced testicular growth in the white-crowned sparrow,Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii. Z. Zellforsch. 93: 369–394.
——Ders. (1972 a): Hypothalamic regulation of testicular function in Japanese quail. Z. Zellforsch. 130: 389–410.
——Ders. (1972 b): Hypothalamic regulation of gonadotropin release in female Japanese quail. Z. Zellforsch. 130: 411–428.
——Ders. (1972 c): Feedback regulation of testicular function in Japanese quail: testosterone implants in the hypothalamus and adenohypophysis. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 19: 37–47.
——Ders. (1973): Recovery of gonadal function following hypothalamic lesions in Japanese quail. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 20: 69–75.
Thompson, J. C. (Herausgeber) (1975): Gastrointestinal Hormones. A Symposium. University of Texas Press, Austin and London.
Tixier-Vidal, A. &B. K. Follett (1973): The adenohypophysis. In: Avian Biology (eds. D. S. Farner & J. R. King. Academic Press, New York), Vol. 3: 110–182.
Tobe, T., K. Henmi, K. Fukuchi, S. T. Chen &S. Tachibana (1974): Distribution of gastrin in human digestive organs demonstrated by direct immunofluorescence. Arch. Histol. jap. 37: 59–72.
Track, N. S. (1973): Evolutionary aspects of the gastrointestinal hormones. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 45 B: 291–301.
Trandaburu, T. (1974): Ultrastructural and acetylcholinesterase investigations on the pancreas intrinsic innervation of two bird species (Columba livia domestica Gm. andEuodice cantans Gm.). Gegenbaurs morph. Jahrb. 120: 888–904.
Turek, F. W., C. Desjardins &M. Menaker (1975): Melatonin: antigonadal and progonadal effects in male golden hamsters. Science 190: 280–282.
Ueck, M. (1974): Vergleichende Betrachtungen zur neuroendokrinen Aktivität des Pinealorgans. Fortschr. Zool. 22: 167–203.
Urry, R. L., K. A. Dougherty, J. L. Frehn &L. C. Ellis (1976): Factors other than light affecting the pineal gland: hypophysectomy, testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, estradiol, cryptorchidism, and stress. Amer. Zool. 16: 79–91.
Vandesande, F. &K. Dierickx (1975): Identification of the vasopressin producing and of the oxytocin producing neurons in the hypothalamic magnocellular neurosecretory system of the rat. Cell Tiss. Res. 164: 153–162.
Vaughan, M. K., G. M. Vaughan, D. E. Blask, M. P. Barnett &R. J. Reiter (1976): Arginin vasotocin: structure-activity relationships and influence on gonadal growth and function. Amer. Zool. 16: 25–34.
Vitums, A., S. I. Mikami, A. Oksche &D. S. Farner (1964): Vascularization of the hypothalamohypophyseal complex in the White-crowned sparrow,Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii. Z. Zellforsch. 64: 541–569.
Weinstein, B. (1972): A generalized homology correlation for various hormones and proteins. Experientia 28: 1517–1522.
Wilson, F. E. (1967): The tubero-infundibular system: a component of the photoperiodic control mechanism of the white-crowned sparrow,Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii. Z. Zellforsch. 82: 1–24.
Winbladh Biuw, L. &G. Hulting (1971): Fine grained secretory cells in the intestine of the lancelet,Branchiostoma (Amphioxus) lanceolatum, studied by light microscopy. Z. Zellforsch. 120: 546–554.
Wingstrand, K. D. (1966): Comparative anatomy and evolution of the hypophysis. In: The Pituitary Gland (eds.G. W. Harris &B. T. Donovan. Butterworths, London), Vol. 1: 58–126.
Wurtman, R. J., J. Axelrod, E. W. Chu, A. Heller &R. Y. Moore (1967): Medial forebrain bundle lesions: blockade of effects of light on rat gonads and pineal. Endocrinol. 81: 509–514.
——Ders.,J. Axelrod &D. E. Kelly (1968): The Pineal. Academic Press, New York.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Epple, A., Stetson, M.H. Einige endokrinologische Besonderheiten der Vögel. J Ornithol 117, 257–278 (1976). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01640487
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01640487