Abstract
In the present article, recent research on sex differences in aggressive styles is reviewed. The concept of indirect aggression is particularly presented and discussed. It is argued that it is incorrect, or rather, nonsensical, to claim that males are more aggressive than females. A theory regarding the development of styles of aggressive behavior is presented.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, D. (1992). Biology does not make men more aggressive than women. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.),Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Anderson, R. A., Bancroft, J., & Wu, F. C. (1992). The effects of exogenous testosterone on sexuality and mood of normal men.Journal of Clinical Endocrinological Metabolism, 75 1503–1507.
Bahrke, M. S., Wright. J. E., Strauss, R. H., & Catlin, D. H. (1992). Psychological moods and subjectively perceived behavioral and somatic changes accompanying anabolic-androgenic steroid use.American Journal of Sports Medicine, 20 717–724.
Benton, D. (1983a). The extrapolations from animal to man: The example of testosterone and aggression. In P. F. Brain & D. Benton (Eds.),Multidisciplinary approaches to aggression research. Amsterdam, Holland: Elsevier/North-Holland.
Benton, D. (1983b). Do animals tell us anything about the relationship between testosterone and human aggression? In G. C. L. Davey (Ed.),Animal models of human behavior. New York: John Wiley.
Benton, D. (1992). Hormones and human aggression. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.),Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Björkqvist, K., & Niemelä, P. (1992). New trends in the study of female aggression. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.),Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992). The development of direct and indirect aggressive strategies in males and females. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.),Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Lagerspetz, K. M. J. (1993). Sex differences in covert aggression among adults.Aggressive Behavior. 19.
Björkqvist, K., Ekman, K., & Lagerspetz, K. M. J. (1982). Bullies and victims: Their ego picture, ideal ego picture and normative ego picture.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 23 307–313.
Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992a). Do girls manipulate and boys fight?Aggressive Behavior, 18 117–127.
Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Österman, K. (1992b).The direct and indirect aggression scales. Vasa, Finland: Åbo Akademi University, Department of Social Sciences.
Björkqvist, K., Nygren, T., Björklund, A.-C., & Björkqvist, S.-E. (1993a). Testosterone intake and aggressiveness: Real effect or anticipation?Aggressive Behavior, 19.
Brown, P., & Schuster, I. (1986). Introduction:. Culture and aggression.Anthropological Quarterly, 59 155–159.
Burbank, V. (1987). Female aggression in cross-cultural perspective.Behavior Science Research, 21 70–100.
Buss, A. H. (1961).The Psychology of Aggression. New York: Wiley.
Buss, A. H., & Durkee, A. (1957). An inventory for assessing different kinds of hostility.Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21 343–349.
Byrne, R. W., & Whiten, A. (Eds.). (1988).Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Collier, J. (1974). Women in politics. In M. Rosaldo & L. Lamphere (Eds.),Woman, culture and society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Cook, H. B. K. (1992). Matrifocality and female aggression in Margeriteno society. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.),Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Donovan, B. T. (1985).Hormones and human behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1986). Gender and aggressive behavior: A meta-analytical review of the social psychological literature.Psychological Bulletin, 100 309–330.
Edwards, D. A. (1969). Early androgen stimulation and aggressive behavior in male and female mice.Physiology and Behavior, 4 333–338.
Edwards, D. A., & Herndon, J. (1970). Neonatal estrogen stimulation and aggressive behavior in female mice.Physiology and Behavior, 4 993–995.
Eron, L. D., Huesmann, R. L., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Walder, L. O. (1972). Does television violence cause aggression?American Psychologist, 27 253–263.
Fossey, D. (1983).Gorillas in the Mist. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Frodi, A., Macaulay, J., & Thome, P. R. (1977). Are women always less aggressive than men?Psychological Bulletin, 84 634–660.
Fry, D. (1990). Play aggression among Zapotec children: Implications for the practice hypothesis.Aggressive Behavior, 16 321–340.
Fry, D. (1992). Female aggression among the Zapotec of Oaxaca, Mexico. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.),Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Fry, D., & Hines, N. (1993, July 4–9).Sex differences in indirect and direct aggression in Argentina. Paper presented at the 3rd European Congress of Psychology, Tampere, Finland.
Glazer, I. M. (1992). Interfemale aggression and resource scarcity in a cross-cultural perspective. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.),Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Goodall, J. (1977). Infant killing and cannibalism in free-living chimpanzees.Folia Primatologica, 28 259–282.
Goodall, J. (1986).The chimpanzees of Gombe. Patterns of behavior. Cambridge: Belknap Press.
Goodall, J. (1991).Through a window, 30 years with the chimpanzees of Gombe. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Hannan, C. J., Jr., Friedl, K. E., Zold, A., Kettler, T. M., & Plymate, S. R. (1991). Psychological and serum homovanillic acid changes in men administered androgenic steroids.Psychoendocrinology, 16 335–343.
Holmström, R. (1992). Female aggression among the great apes. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.).Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Huesmann, R. L., & Eron, L. D. (Eds.). (1986).Television and the aggressive child: A cross-national comparison. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Huesmann, R., L., Eron, L. D., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Walder, L. O. (1984). The stability of aggression over time and generations.Developmental Psychology, 20 1120–1134.
Hyde, J. S. (1984). How large are gender differences in aggression? A developmental meta-analysis.Developmental Psychology, 20 1120–1134.
Kaukiainen, A., Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Niskanen, L. (1993). Social intelligence and the use of indirect aggression. In preparation.
Kuschel, R. (1992). “Women are women and men are men”: How Bellonese women get even. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.),Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Björkqvist, K. (1993). Indirect aggression in girls and boys. In L. R. Huesmann (Ed.),Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives. New York: Plenum Press.
Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Björkqvist, K., & Peltonen, T. (1988). Is indirect aggression typical of females? Gender differences in aggressiveness in 11–12-year-old children.Aggressive Behavior, 14 303–315.
Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Björkqvist, K., Berts, M., & King, E. (1982). Group aggression among school children in three schools.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 23 45–52.
Lindman, R., von der Pahlen, B., Öst, B., & Eriksson, P. (1992). Serum testosterone, cortisol, glucose, and ethanol in males arrested for spouse abuse.Aggressive Behavior, 18 393–400.
Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1974).The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Olweus, D. (1978).Aggression in the schools. Bullies and whipping boys. New York: Wiley.
Olweus, D. (1986).Mobbning. Stockholm, Sweden: Liber. [in Swedish].
Olweus, D., Mattson, A., Scallning, D., & Lööw, H. (1980). Aggression, physical and personality dimensions in normal adolescent males.Psychosomatic Medicine, 42 253–269.
Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., & Steinmetz, S. K. (1980).Behind closed doors: Violence in the American family. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.
White, J. W. (1983). Sex and gender issues in aggression research. In R. G. Geen & E. I. Donnerstein (Eds.),Aggression: Theoretical and empirical reviews (Vol. 2.). New York: Academic Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Björkqvist, K. Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles 30, 177–188 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01420988
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01420988