Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Forms and Functions of Aggression

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Clinical Forensic Psychology

  • 2203 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter provides an introduction to aggression research. To this end, historical trends, sex differences, and lifetime trajectories of aggression are detailed. Regarding subtypes of aggression, different categorizations have been used, such as direct versus indirect aggression, and distinctions between verbal, relational, and physical aggression. The differentiation between reactive (RA; hot-blooded, impulsive, and in retaliation to perceived provocation) and proactive (PA; cold-blooded, deliberate, and with a goal other than harming the victim) functions of aggression however, remains the most empirically validated—and forms the focus of the current chapter. Studies have demonstrated differential correlates for RA and PA in at least six different areas: behavioral and emotional control, psychopathology, social information processing, social adjustment, brain function, and genetic influences. Suggestions for clinical application of this empirical data are discussed. Finally, assessment methods for aggression are addressed, including both self-report (such as the Reactive Proactive Questionnaire) and behavioral methods (such as the Competitive Reaction Time Task).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 64.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126(5), 651–680. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.651

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8(4), 291–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106(1), 59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992). Do girls manipulate and boys fight? Developmental trends in regard to direct and indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 18(2), 117–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blais, J., Solodukhin, E., & Forth, A. E. (2014). A meta-analysis exploring the relationship between psychopathy and instrumental versus reactive violence. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 41(7), 797–821.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brame, B., Nagin, D. S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2001). Developmental trajectories of physical aggression from school entry to late adolescence. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 42(4), 503–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brendgen, M., Vitaro, F., Boivin, M., Dionne, G., & Pérusse, D. (2006). Examining genetic and environmental effects on reactive versus proactive aggression. Developmental Psychology, 42(6), 1299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Is it time to pull the plug on hostile versus instrumental aggression dichotomy? Psychological Review, 108(1), 273–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B. J., & Huesmann, L. R. (2006). Short-term and long-term effects of violent media on aggression in children and adults. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(4), 348–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., Spieker, S., Burchinal, M., Poe, M. D., & Network, N. E. C. C. R. (2006). Trajectories of aggression from toddlerhood to age 9 predict academic and social functioning through age 12. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(8), 791–800. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01636.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A., & Little, T. D. (2006). Proactive and reactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis of differential relations with psychosocial adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30(5), 466–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79(5), 1185–1229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cherek, D. R. (1981). Effects of smoking different doses of nicotine on human aggressive behavior. Psychopharmacology (berl), 75(4), 339–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cima, M., & Raine, A. (2009). Distinct characteristics of psychopathy relate to different subtypes of aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(8), 835–840.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cirillo, P., & Taleb, N. N. (2016). The decline of violent conflicts: What do the data really say? In Nobel Foundation Symposium 161: The Causes of Peace (pp. 1–26): Nobel Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cleverley, K., Szatmari, P., Vaillancourt, T., Boyle, M., & Lipman, E. (2012). Developmental trajectories of physical and indirect aggression from late childhood to adolescence: Sex differences and outcomes in emerging adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(10), 1037–1051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Côté, S. M. (2007). Sex differences in physical and indirect aggression: A developmental perspective. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 13(3–4), 183–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-007-9046-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crapanzano, A. M., Frick, P. J., & Terranova, A. M. (2010). Patterns of physical and relational aggression in a school-based sample of boys and girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(4), 433–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, & Dodge, K. A. . (1996). Social information-processing mechanisms in reactive and proactive aggression. Child Development, 67, 993–1002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 74–101. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.115.1.74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1996). Social information-processing mechanisms in reactive and proactive aggression. Child Development, 67(3), 993–1002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dambacher, F., Schuhmann, T., Lobbestael, J., Arntz, A., Brugman, S., & Sack, A. T. (2015). Reducing proactive aggression through non-invasive brain stimulation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(10), 1303–1309. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsv018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeWall, C. N., Finkel, E. J., Lambert, N. M., Slotter, E. B., Bodenhausen, G. V., Pond, R. S., Jr., & Fincham, F. D. (2013). The voodoo doll task: Introducing and validating a novel method for studying aggressive inclinations. Aggressive Behavior, 39(6), 419–439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and aggression.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrington, D. P. (1989). Early predictors of adolescent aggression and adult violence. Violence and Victims, 4(2), 79–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, C. J., & Dyck, D. (2012). Paradigm change in aggression research: The time has come to retire the General Aggression Model. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(3), 220–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, C. J., & Kilburn, J. (2009). The public health risks of media violence: A meta-analytic review. The Journal of Pediatrics, 154(5), 759–763.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fite, P. J., Raine, A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. A. (2010). Reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent males: Examining differential outcomes 10 years later in early adulthood. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(2), 141–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). Research review: The importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(4), 359–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garofalo, C., Neumann, C. S., & Velotti, P. (2020). Psychopathy and aggression: The role of emotion dysregulation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 0886260519900946.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D. (1996). Psychopathy: A clinical construct whose time has come. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 23(1), 25–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herrenkohl, T. I., McMorris, B. J., Catalano, R. F., Abbott, R. D., Hemphill, S. A., & Toumbourou, J. W. (2007). Risk factors for violence and relational aggression in adolescence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(4), 386–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsieh, I.-J., & Chen, Y. Y. (2017). Determinants of aggressive behavior: Interactive effects of emotional regulation and inhibitory control. PLoS One, 12(4), e0175651.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudley, C., & Graham, S. (1993). An attributional intervention to reduce peer-directed aggression among African-American boys. Child Development, 64(1), 124–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huesmann, L. R., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C.-L., & Eron, L. D. (2003). Longitudinal relations between children’s exposure to TV violence and their aggressive and violent behavior in young adulthood: 1977–1992. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 201–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.2.201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, J. D., Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & McGregor, H. A. (1999). A hot new way to measure aggression: Hot sauce allocation. Aggressive Behavior, 25(5), 331–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Litrownik, A. J., Newton, R., Hunter, W. M., English, D., & Everson, M. D. (2003). Exposure to family violence in young at-risk children: A longitudinal look at the effects of victimization and witnessed physical and psychological aggression. Journal of Family Violence, 18(1), 59–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, T. D., Henrich, C. C., Jones, S. M., & Hawley, P. H. (2003). Disentangling the “whys” from the “whats” of aggressive behaviour. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27(2), 122–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (2004). Malnutrition at age 3 tears and externalizing behavior problems at ages 8, 11, and 17 years. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(11), 2005–2013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lobbestael, J., Cima, M., & Arntz, A. (2013). The relationship between adult reactive and proactive aggression, hostile interpretation bias, and antisocial personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 27(1), 53–66. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2013.27.1.53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lobbestael, J., Emmerling, F., Brugman, S., Broers, N., Sack, A. T., Schuhmann, T., . . . Arntz, A. Towards a more valid assessment of behavioral aggression: An open source platform and an empirically derived scoring method for using the Competitive Reaction Time Task (CRTT). Assessment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lopez-Duran, N. L., Olson, S. L., Hajal, N. J., Felt, B. T., & Vazquez, D. M. (2009). Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis functioning in reactive and proactive aggression in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(2), 169–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9263-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynam, D. R., Hoyle, R. H., & Newman, J. P. (2006). The perils of partialling: Cautionary tales from aggression and psychopathy. Assessment, 13(3), 328–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsee, M. A., & Frick, P. J. (2007). Exploring the cognitive and emotional correlates to proactive and reactive aggression in a sample of detained girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(6), 969–981.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maughan, B., Pickles, A., Rowe, R., Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (2000). Developmental trajectories of aggressive and non-aggressive conduct problems. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16(2), 199–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAuliffe, M. D., Hubbard, J. A., Rubin, R. M., Morrow, M. T., & Dearing, K. F. (2006). Reactive and proactive aggression: Stability of constructs and relations to correlates. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 167(4), 365–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merk, W., Orobio de Castro, B., Koops, W., & Matthys, W. (2005). The distinction between reactive and proactive aggression: Utility for theory, diagnosis and treatment? European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2(2), 197–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Micale, M. S., & Dwyer, P. (2018). History, violence, and Steven Pinker. Historical Reflections, 44(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.3167/hrrh.2018.440102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milich, R., & Dodge, K. A. (1984). Social information processing in child psychiatric populations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12(3), 471–489. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00910660

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. D., & Lynam, D. R. (2006). Reactive and proactive aggression: Similarities and differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 41(8), 1469–1480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nærde, A., Ogden, T., Janson, H., & Zachrisson, H. D. (2014). Normative development of physical aggression from 8 to 26 months. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orobio de Castro, B., Merk, W., Koops, W., Veerman, J. W., & Bosch, J. D. (2005). Emotions in social information processing and their relations with reactive and proactive aggression in referred aggressive boys. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(1), 105–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orpinas, P., McNicholas, C., & Nahapetyan, L. (2015). Gender differences in trajectories of relational aggression perpetration and victimization from middle to high school. Aggressive Behavior, 41(5), 401–412. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21563

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Österman, K., Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K., Kaukiainen, A., Landau, S. F., Fracczek, A., & Caprara, G. V. (1998). Cross-Cultural Evidence of Female Indirect Aggression., 24, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavlov, K. A., Chistiakov, D. A., & Chekhonin, V. P. (2012). Genetic determinants of aggression and impulsivity in humans. Journal of Applied Genetics, 53(1), 61–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13353-011-0069-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinker, S. (2011). The better angels of our nature: The decline of violence in history and its causes. Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poulin, F., & Boivin, M. (2000). Reactive and proactive aggression: Evidence of a two-factor model. Psychological Assessment, 12(2), 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.12.2.115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Provencal, N., Booij, L., & Tremblay, R. E. (2015). The developmental origins of chronic physical aggression: Biological pathways triggered by early life adversity. Journal of Experimental Biology, 218, 123–133. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.111401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raine, A. (2008). From genes to brain to antisocial behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(5), 323–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds, C., & Liu, J. (2006). The reactive-proactive aggression questionnaire: Differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys. Aggressive Behavior, 32(2), 159–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ritter, D., & Eslea, M. (2005). Hot sauce, toy guns, and graffiti: A critical account of current laboratory aggression paradigms. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression, 31(5), 407–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli, C., Kaukiainen, A., & Lagerspetz, K. (2000). Aggression and sociometric status among peers: Do gender and type of aggression matter? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 41(1), 17–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slotter, E. B., & Finkel, E. J. (2011). I3 theory: Instigating, impelling, and inhibiting factors in aggression. In Human aggression and violence: Causes, manifestations, and consequences. (pp. 35–52). American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. L., Rose, A. J., & Schwartz-Mette, R. A. (2009). Relational and overt aggression in childhood and adolescence: Clarifying mean-level gender differences and associations with peer acceptance. Social Development, 19(2), 243–269. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00541.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smithmyer, C. M., Hubbard, J. A., & Simons, R. F. (2000). Proactive and reactive aggression in delinquent adolescents: Relations to aggression outcome expectancies. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 29(1), 86–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanford, M. S., Houston, R. J., Villemarette-Pittman, N. R., & Greve, K. W. (2003). Premeditated aggression: Clinical assessment and cognitive psychophysiology. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(5), 773–781.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stickle, T. R., Marini, V. A., & Thomas, J. N. (2012). Gender differences in psychopathic traits, types, and correlates of aggression among adjudicated youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(4), 513–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. P. (1967). Aggressive behavior and physiological arousal as a function of provocation and the tendency to inhibit aggression. Journal of Personality, 35(2), 297–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E. (2016). The development of aggressive behaviour during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24(2), 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/016502500383232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • True, J. (2014). Are war and violence really in decline? Australian Journal of International Affairs, 68(5), 487–494. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357718.2014.947354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuvblad, C., Raine, A., Zheng, M., & Baker, L. A. (2009). Genetic and environmental stability differs in reactive and proactive aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 35(6), 437–452. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20319

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, M. K., Beron, K. J., & Rosen, L. H. (2009). Continuity and change in social and physical aggression from middle childhood through early adolescence. Aggressive Behavior, 35(5), 357–375. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T., Miller, J. L., Fagbemi, J., Cote, S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2007). Trajectories and predictors of indirect aggression: Results from a nationally representative longitudinal study of Canadian children aged 2–10. Aggressive Behavior, 33(4), 314–326. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitaro, F., Barker, E. D., Boivin, M., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2006). Do early difficult temperament and harsh parenting differentially predict reactive and proactive aggression? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(5), 685–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9055-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitaro, F., Gendreau, P. L., Tremblay, R. E., & Oligny, P. (1998). Reactive and proactive aggression differentially predict later conduct problems. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 39(3), 377–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walters, G. D. (2007). Measuring proactive and reactive criminal thinking with the PICTS. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(4), 371–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waltes, R., Chiocchetti, A. G., & Freitag, C. M. (2016). The neurobiological basis of human aggression: A review on genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 171(5), 650–675.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warburton, W. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2019). The competitive reaction time task: The development and scientific utility of a flexible laboratory aggression paradigm. Aggressive Behavior, 45(4), 389–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, B. A., Jarrett, M. A., & Ollendick, T. H. (2013). Self-regulation deficits explain the link between reactive aggression and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in children. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35(1), 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodworth, M., & Porter, S. (2002). In cold blood: Characteristics of criminal homicides as a function of psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111(3), 436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Z., Wang, Q., Liu, X., Song, P., & Yang, B. (2017). Differences in inhibitory control between impulsive and premeditated aggression in juvenile inmates. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Further Reading

  • Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Is it time to pull the plug on hostile versus instrumental aggression dichotomy? Psychological Review, 108(1), 273–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cima, M., & Raine, A. (2009). Distinct characteristics of psychopathy relate to different subtypes of aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(8), 835–840.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, C. J., & Dyck, D. (2012). Paradigm change in aggression research: The time has come to retire the General Aggression Model. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(3), 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.02.007

  • Pinker, S. (2011). The better angels of our nature: The decline of violence in history and its causes. Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poulin, F., & Boivin, M. (2000). Reactive and proactive aggression: Evidence of a two-factor model. Psychological Assessment, 12(2), 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.12.2.115

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands

    Morsal Khouwaga Yusoufzai & Jill Lobbestael

Authors
  1. Morsal Khouwaga Yusoufzai
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jill Lobbestael
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Morsal Khouwaga Yusoufzai .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Developmental Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Carlo Garofalo

  2. Department of Developmental Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Jelle J. Sijtsema

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Khouwaga Yusoufzai, M., Lobbestael, J. (2022). Forms and Functions of Aggression. In: Garofalo, C., Sijtsema, J.J. (eds) Clinical Forensic Psychology. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80882-2_19

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80882-2_19

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-80881-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-80882-2

  • eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation