Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hypertension: Cognitive and behavioral considerations

  • Published:
Neuropsychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article reviews literature concerning functional changes resulting from elevated blood pressure, from reduction of blood pressure, and as a result of the medications used to treat high blood pressure. The research reviewed includes the areas of psychomotor speed, intelligence and cognitive processing, sensory and perceptual processes, and emotional and interpersonal behaviors. The conclusions reached are that the deficits noted to date in hypertensive individuals are not extreme nor are they specific. The greatest disadvantage, however, appears in the area of response speed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adler, S. (1974). Methyldopa-induced decrease in mental activity.JAMA 230: 1428–1429.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, F. (1939). Emotional factors in essential hypertension: Presentation of a tentative hypothesis.Psychosom. Med. 1: 173–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apter, N., Halstead, W., and Heimberger, R. (1951). Impaired cerebral functions in essential hypertension.Am. J. Psychiat. 107: 808–813.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, P., Collins, F., Bourianoff, G., and Ketchel, M. (1979). Assessing personality factors in essential hypertension with a brief self-report instrument.Psychosom. Med. 41: 321–330.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bayliss, P., and Duncan, S. (1975). The effects of atenolol (Tenormin) and methyldopa on simple tests of central nervous function.Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2: 527–531.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beal, D., Dujovne, C., and Gillis, J. (1980). The effect of methyldopa on human judgment in hypertensive patients and normal volunteers.Res. Commun. Psychol. Psychiat. Behav. 5: 205–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birren, J. (1965). Age changes in speed of behavior: Its central nature and physiological correlates. In A. Welford and J. Birren (Eds.),Behavior, Aging, and the Nervous System. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birren, J., Riegel, K., and Morrison, D. (1962). Age differences in response speed as a function of controlled variations of stimulus conditions: Evidence of a general speed factor.Gerontologia 6: 1–18.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boller, F., Vrtunski, B., Mack, J., and Kim, Y. (1977). Neuropsychological correlates of hypertension.Arch. Neurol. 34: 701–705.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Botwinick, J. (1977). Intellectual abilities. In J. Birren and K. Schaie (Eds.),Handbook of the Psychology of Aging. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botwinick, J. (1978). Slow response to environmental stimulation. In J. Botwinick,Aging and Behavior (2nd ed.), Springer, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broadhurst, A. (1980). The effect of propranolol on human psychomotor performance.Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 57: 176–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruce, J., and Thomas, C. (1953). A method of rating certain personality factors as determined by the Rorschach test for use in a study of the precursors of hypertension and coronary artery disease.Psychiat. Quart. Suppl. 27: 207–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buck, L. (1966). Reaction time as a measure of perceptual vigilance.Psychol. Bull. 65: 291–304.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chocholle, R. (1963). Les temps de réaction (Reaction times). In P. Fraisse and J. Piaget (Eds.),Traité de psychologie expérimentale: II. Sensation et motricite. (Treatise on experimental psychology: II. Sensation and motor activity). Presses Universitaires de France, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, W. C. (1966). The psyche in psychophysics.Psychol. Bull. 65: 358–366.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, W. C., Brown, J., and Rutschmann, J. (1967). Flicker sensitivity and response bias in psychiatric patients and normal subjects.J. Abnorm. Psychol. 72: 35–42.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, W. C., Rutschmann, J., Link, R., and Brown, J. (1963). Comparison of flicker-fusion thresholds obtained by the methods of forced choice and limits on psychiatric patients.Percept. Motor Skills 16: 19–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clausen, J. (1950). An evaluation of experimental methods of time judgment.J. Exp. Psychol. 40: 756–760.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cochrane, R. (1971). High blood pressure as a psychosomatic disorder: A selective review.Br. J. Social Clin. Psychol. 10: 61–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Contreras, R. (1978). Salt taste and disease.Am. J. Clin. Nutrit. 31: 1090–1099.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P., and Shock, N. (1980). New longitudinal data on the question of whether hypertension influences intellectual performance. In M. Elias and D. H. P. Streeten (Eds.),Hypertension and Cognitive Processes. Beech Hill, Mount Desert, Maine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P., McRae, R., Andres, R., and Tobin, J. (1980). Hypertension, somatic complaints, and personality. In M. Elias and D. H. P. Streeten (Eds.),Hypertension and Cognitive Processes. Beech Hill, Mount Desert, Maine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, M. (1971). Is high blood pressure a psychosomatic disorder? A critical review of the evidence.J. Chronic Dis. 24: 239–258.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dustan, H., Tarazi, R., and Bravo, E. (1972). Physiologic characteristics of hypertension.Am. J. Med. 52: 610–622.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elias, M. F., and Streeten, D. H. P. (Eds.). (1980).Hypertension and Cognitive Processes. Beech Hill, Mount Desert, Maine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enzer, N., Simonson, E., and Blankstein, S. (1942). Fatigue of patients with circulatory insufficiency, investigated by means of the fusion frequency of flicker.Ann. Intern. Med. 16: 701–707.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ey, H., Bernard, P., and Brisset, C. (1974).Manuel de psychiatrie, Quatrieme Edition (Manuel of Psychiatry; 4th ed.). Masson, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fallis, N., Lasagna, L., and Theteault, L. (1962). Gustatory thresholds in patients with hypertension.Nature 196: 74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fertig, H., Olmstead, F., and Corcoran, A. (1952). The fusion frequency of flicker in hypertension.Am. Heart J. 44: 261–267.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foster, G., and Bell, S. (1983). Relation of state and trait anxiety to essential hypertension.Psychol. Rep. 52: 355–358.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franceschi, M., Tancredi, D., Smirni, S., Mercinelli, A., and Canal, A. (1982). Cognitive processes in hypertension.Hypertension 4: 226–229.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, M., and Bennet, P. (1977). Depression and hypertension.Psychosoma. Med. 39: 134–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galton, L. (1973).The Silent Disease: Hypertension. Crown, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Genest, J., Kuchel, O., Hanet, P., and Lenden, N. (Eds.). (1983).Hypertension: Physiopathology and Treatment. McGraw-Hill, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ginsburg, N. (1970). Flicker fusion bibliography, 1953–1968.Percept. Motor Skills 30 (Suppl. 1-V30): 427–482.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, H., Kleinman, K., Snow, M., Bidus, D., and Korol, B. (1974). Correlation of diastolic blood pressure and signs of cognitive dysfunction in essential hypertension.Dis. Nervous System 35: 571–572.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, H., Kleinman, K., Snow, M., Bidus, D., and Korol, B. (1975). Relationship between essential hypertension and cognitive functioning: Effects of biofeedback.Psychophysiology 12: 569–573.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, I. (1981). Assessment of hypertension. In L. Bradley and C. Prokop (Eds.),Medical Psychology: A New Perspective. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guyton, A. (1971). Regulation of mean arterial pressure, and hypertension. InTextbook of Medical Physiology (4th ed.). Saunders, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halstead, W. (1947).Brain and Intelligence. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harburg, E., Julius, S., McGinn, N., McLeod, J., and Hoobler, S. (1964). Personality traits and behavioral patterns associated with systolic blood pressure levels in college males.J. Chronic Dis. 17: 405–414.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrell, J. (1980). Psychological factors and hypertension: A status report.Psychol. Bull. 87: 482–501.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, R., and Singer, M. (1968). Interaction of personality and stress in the pathogenesis of essential hypertension.Hypertension 16: 104–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heine, B., Sainsbury, P., and Cheynometh, R. (1969). Hypertension and emotional disturbance.J. Psychiat. Res. 7: 119–130.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hickler, R. (1983). Aging and hypertension: Hemodynamic implications of systolic pressure trends.J. Am. Geriat. Soc. 31: 421–425.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, L., and Birren, J. (1970). Aging, brain damage, and psychomotor slowing.Psychol. Bull. 74: 377–396.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Intellectual performance in hypertensive patients. (1984).Lancet, 1(No. 8368): 87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalis, B., Harris, R., Bennett, C., and Sokolow, M. (1961). Personality and life history factors in persons who are potentially hypertensive.J. Nervous Mental Dis. 132: 457–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalis, B., Harris, R., Sokolow, M., and Carpenter, L. (1957). Response to psychological stress in patients with essential hypertension.Am. Heart J. 53: 572–578.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, N. (1980). The control of hypertension: A therapeutic breakthrough.Am. Scient. 68: 537–545.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kausler, D. (1982).Experimental Psychology and Human Aging. Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kidson, M. (1973). Personality and hypertension.J. Psychosom. Res. 17: 35–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, H. E. (1954).Psychomotor Aspects of Mental Disease. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, H. E. (1956). Comparison of fine psychomotor movement by hypertensive and hypotensive subjects.Percept. Motor Skills 6: 199–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, H. E. (1962). Two-flash and flicker fusion thresholds for normal and schizophenic subjects.Percept. Motor Skills, 14, 517–518.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, H. E. (1965). Psychomotor changes with age, psychopathology, and brain damage. In A. Welford and J. Birren (Eds.),Behavior, Aging and the Nervous System. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, H. E. (1968). Psychomotor tests in experimental abnormal psychology. In J. Zubin and E. Burdock (Eds.),Experimental Abnormal Psychology (rev. ed.). Library of Congress ADI 9908, Washington, DC.

  • King, H. E. (1969). Psychomotility: A dimension of behavior disorder. In J. Zubin and C. Shagass (Eds.),Neurobiological Aspects of Psychopathology. Grune & Stratton, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, H. E. (1974).The rating of behavior exhibited during psychological testing: A description of the Tulane Test-Behavior Scale. ASIS/NAPS No. 02483, New York.

  • King, H. E. (1975). Psychomotor correlates of behavior disorder. In M. Kietzman (Ed.),Experimental Approaches to Psychopathology. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, H. E., Miller, R., Fitzgibbon, K., and Shapiro, A. (1986). Test taking behaviors by hypertensive and normotensive individuals.J. Psychol. 120 (4): 309–321.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, H. E., Miller, R., Shapiro, A., and Fitzgibbon, K. (1985). Similarities and differences in test taking behaviors by hypertensive and normotensive subjects.Virginia J. Sci. 36: 162 (abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman, K., Goldman, H., Snow, M., and Korol, B. (1977). Relationship between essential hypertension and cognitive functioning: Effects of biofeedback training generalize to non-laboratory environment.Psychophysiology 14: 192–197.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krantz, D., and Glass, D. (1984). Personality, behavior patterns and physical illness: Conceptual and methodological issues. In W. Gentry (Ed.),Handbook of Behavioral Medicine. Guilford, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krantz, D., and Manuck, S. (1984). Acute psychophysiologic reactivity and risk of cardiovascular disease: A review and methodologic critique.Psychol. Bull. 96: 435–464.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krantz, D., Baum, A., and Singer, J. (Eds.). (1983).Handbook of Psychology and Health, Vol. 3: Cardiovascular Diseases. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krasno, L., and Ivy, A. (1950). The response of flicker fusion threshold to nitroglycerine and its potential value in the diagnosis, prognosis and therapy of subclinical and clinical cardiovascular disease.Circulation 1: 1267–1276.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laake, K. (1981). Antianginal and beta-adrenoceptor blocking drugs. In M. N. G. Dukes (Ed.),Side Effects of Drugs Annual (5th ed.). Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landis, C. (1954). Determinants of the critical flicker fusion threshold.Physiol. Rev. 34: 259–286.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landis, C., and Hamwi, V. (1954). The effect of certain physiological determinants on the flicker fusion threshold.J. Appl. Psychol. 6: 566–572.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landis, C., Clausen, J., and Gjesuik, A. (1955). Effect of varying stimulus conditions on the flicker fusion threshold when nitroglycerine or the cold pressor test was applied.J. Appl. Physiol. 7: 513–518.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lauer, R., Filer, L., Reiter, M., and Clarke, W. (1976). Blood pressure, salt preference, salt threshhold, and relative weight.Am. J. Dis. Children 130: 493–498.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leplat, J. (1963). Les Liaisons sensori-motrices (Sensorimotor connections). In P. Fraisse and J. Piaget (Eds.),Traité de psychologie experiméntale: II. Sensation et motricite. (Treatise on experimental psychology: II. Sensation and motor activity). Presses Universitaires de France, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levinson, J. (1968). Flicker fusion phenomena.Science 160: 21–28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, R., and Moskowitz, J. (1982). Cardiovascular research: Decades of progress, a decade of promise.Science 217: 121–129.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Light, K. (1975). Slowing of response time in young and middle-aged hypertensive patients.Exp. Aging Res. 1: 209–227.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Light, K. (1978). Effects of mild cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disorders on serial reaction time performance.Exp. Aging Res. 4: 3–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Light, K. (1980a). Hypertension and response slowing. In M. F. Elias and D. H. P. Streeten (Eds.),Hypertension and Cognitive Processes. 32: Beech Hill, Mount Desert, Maine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Light, K. (1980b). Antihypertensive drugs and behavioral performance. In M. F. Elias and D. G. P. Streeten (Eds.),Hypertension and Cognitive Processes. Beech Hill, Mount Desert, Maine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, J. (1982). Interpersonal aspects of blood pressure control.J. Nervous Mental Dis. 170: 143–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manuck, S., Morrison, R., and Bellack, A. (in press). Psychological factors in hypertension. inPsychophysiological, Biobehavioral, and Epidemiologic Aspects of Hypertension. NIH, Bethesda, Maryland.

  • Marx, A. (1976). Hypertension. A complex disease with complex causes.Science 194: 821–825.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mattes, R., Kumanyika, S., and Halpern, B. (1983). Salt taste responsiveness and preference among normotensive, prehypertensive and hypertensive adults.Chem. Senses 8: 27–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. (1979). Inhibited power motivation and high blood pressure in men.J. Abnorm. Psychol. 88: 182–190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGinn, N., Harburg, E., Julius, S., and McLeod, J. (1964). Psychological correlates of blood pressure.Psychol. Bull. 61: 209–219.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melville, D., and Raftery, E. (1981). Blood pressure changes during acute mental stress in hypertensive subjects using the Oxford intra-arterial system.J. Psychosom. Res. 25: 487–497.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michell, A. (1978). Salt appetite, salt intake, and hypertension: A deviation of perspective.Perspect. Biol. Med. 21: 335–347.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, R., Shapiro, A., King, H. E., Ginchereau, E., and Hosutt, J. (1984). Effect of antihypertensive treatment on the behavioral consequences of elevated blood pressure.Hypertension 6: 202–208.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Monk, M. (1980). Psychologic status and hypertension.Am. J. Epidemiol. 112: 200–208.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Obrist, P. (1976). The cardiovascular-behavioral interaction-As it appears today.Psychophysiology 13: 95–107.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O'Neill, M. (1976). A study of manifest needs with self-actualization.Nurs. Res. 25: 349–351.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ostfeld, A. (1973). What's the payoff in hypertension research?Psychosom. Med. 35, 1–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, I., and Prigitano, G. (1978). Methodological considerations in clinical neuropsychological research.J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 46: 608–619.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pentz, C., Elias, M., Wood, W., Schultz, N., and Dineen, J. (1979). Relationship of age and hypertension to neuropsychological test performance.Exp. Aging Res. 5: 351–372.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pickering, G. (1972). Hypertension: Definitions, natural histories and consequences.Am. J. Med. 52: 570–583.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pilowsky, I., Spalding, D., Shaw, J., and Korner, P. (1973). Hypertension and personality.Psychosom. Med. 35: 50–56.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reitan, R. (1954). Intellectual and affective changes in essential hypertension.Am. J. Psychiat. 110: 817–824.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reitan, R. (1958). Validity of the trail making test as an indication of organic brain damage.Percept. Motor Skills 8: 271–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richer, F., Silverman, C., and Beatty, J. (1983). Response selection and initiation in speeded reactions: A pupillometric analysis.J. Exp. Psychol. 9: 360–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richter-Heinrich, E., and Laüter, J. (1969). A psychophysiological test as diagnostic tool with essential hypertensives.Psychother. Psychosom. 17: 153–168.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, J. (1962). A study of enuroticism and casual arterial blood pressure.Br. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 2: 56–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Safar, M., Kamiencka, H., Levenson, J., Demetriu, V., and Pauleau, N. (1978). Hemodynamic factors and Rorschach testing in borderline and sustained hypertension.Psychosom. Med. 40: 620–631.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sainsbury, P. (1964). Neuroticism and hypertension in an outpatient population.J. Psychosom. Res. 8: 235–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sapira, J., Scheib, E., Moriarty, R., and Shapiro, A. (1971). Differences in perception between hypertensive and normotensive populations.Psychosom. Med. 33: 239–250.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schalling, D., and Svensson, J. (1984). Blood pressure and personality.Personal. Individ. Diff. 5: 41–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scher, J., and Spankus, W. (1955). Flicker fusion frequency and hypertension.Am. J. Ophthalmol. 39: 705–717.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, N., and Elias, M. F. (1980). The effects of hypertension on WAIS performance. In M. F. Elias and D. H. P. Stretten (Eds.),Hypertension and Cognitive Processes. Beech Hill, Mount Desert, Maine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, N., Dineen, J., Elias, M., Pentz, C., and Wood, W. (1979). WAIS performance for different age groups of hypertensive and control subjects during the administration of a diuretic.J. Gerontol. 34: 246–253.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, G., Shapiro, A., Redmond, D., Ferguson, D., Ragland, E., and Weiss, S. (1979). Behavioral medicine approaches to hypertension: An integrative analysis of theory and research.Behav. Med. 2: 311–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scotch, H., and Geiger, H. (1963). The epidemiology of essential hypertension: A review with special attention to the psychological and sociocultural factors. II. Psychologic and cultural factors in etiology.J. Chronic Dis. 16: 1183–1213.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seashore, R., Buxton, C., and McCullom, I. (1940). Multiple factorial analysis of fine motor skills.Am. J. Psychol. 53: 251–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, A. (1973). Essential hypertension—why idiopathic?Am. J. Med. 54: 1–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, A. (1979). The role of stress in hypertension.J. Human Stress, 5: 7–26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, A. (1983). Psychological and social factors in hypertension. In J. Genest, O. Kuchel, P. Hanet, and M. Lenden (Eds.),Hypertension: Physiopathology and Treatment. McGraw-Hill, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, A. (1985). Clinical relevance of the pharmacological characteristics of beta-adrenergic blocking agents in treatment of hypertension. In J. Drayer and M. Weber (Eds.),Drug Therapy in Hypertension (in press).

  • Shapiro, A., Miller, R., King, H. E., Ginchereau, E., and Fitzgibbon, K. (1982). Behavioral consequences of mild hypertension.Hypertension 4: 355–360.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, A., Redmond, D., McDonald, R., and Gaylor, M. (1975). Relationships of perception, cognition, suggestion and operant conditioning in essential hypertension.Prog. Brain Res. 42: 299–312.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, A., Schwartz, G., Redmond, D., Ferguson, D., and Weiss, S. (1977). Behavioral methods in the treatment of hypertension.Ann. Intern. Med. 86: 626–637.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, D., and Goldstein, I. (1982). Biobehavioral perspectives on hypertension.J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 50: 841–858.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simonson, E., and Enzer, N. (1941). State of motor centers in circulatory insufficiency.Arch. Intern. Med. 68: 498–512.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, S., Hotchkiss, E., Saravay, S., Bayer, C., Ramsey, P., and Blum, R. (1983). Impairment of memory function by antihypertension medication.Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 40: 1109–1112.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spieth, W. (1962). Abnormally slow perceptual-motor task performances in individuals with stable, mild to moderate heart disease.Aerospace Med. 33: 370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spieth, W. (1964). Cardiovascular health status, age and psychological performance.J. Gerontol. 19: 277–284.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spieth, W. (1965). Slowness of task performance and cardiovascular diseases. In A. Welford and J. Birren (Eds.),Behavior, Aging, and the Nervous System. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spieth, W. (1967). Psychologic reaction to cardiovascular damage in the aged.Mayo Clin. Proc. 42: 620–636.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steptoe, A. (1981).Psychological Factors in Cardiovascular Disorders. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steptoe, A., Melville, D., and Ross, A. (1984). Behavioral response demands, cardiovascular reactivity, and essential hypertension.Psychosom. Med. 46: 33–48.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Svensson, T., and Theorell, T. (1982). Cardiovascular effects of anxiety induced by interviewing young hypertensive male subjects.J. Psychosom. Res. 26: 359–370.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szafran, J. (1965). Decision processes and aging. In A. Welford and J. Birren (Eds.),Behavior, Aging, and the Nervous System. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, C., and Fortmann, S. (1983). Essential hypertension.Psychosomatics 24: 433–448.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaidya, A., Srivastava, S., and Kumar, A. (1983). Extraversion and neuroticism in hypertensive patients.Perspect. Psychol. Res. 6: 86–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vega, A., and Parsons, O. (1967). Cross-validation of the Halstead-Reitan tests for brain damage.J. Consult. Psychol. 31: 619–625.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1955).Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales. Psychological Corporation, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, H. (1972). Some comments on the transduction of experience by the brain: Implications for an understanding of the relation of mind to body.Psychosom. Med. 34: 355–380.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, H. (1976). Lessons taught by experimental high blood pressure research.Psychosom. Med. 38: 297–298.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, H. (1979).Psychobiology of Essential Hypertension. Elsevier, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, H., Singer, M., and Reiser, M. (1962). Cardiovascular responses and their psychophysiologic correlates: A study in healthy young adults and patients with peptic ulcer and hypertension.Psychosom. Med. 24: 477–498.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wennerholm, M., and Zarle, T. (1976). Internal-external control, defensiveness, and anxiety in hypertensive patients.J. Clin. Psychol. 32: 644–648.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkie, F., and Eisdorfer, C. (1971). Intelligence and blood pressure in the aged.Science 172: 959–962.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkie, F., and Eisdorfer, C. (1980). Hypertension and tests of memory. In M. Elias and D. H. P. Streeten (Eds.),Hypertension and Cognitive Processes. Beech Hill, Mount Desert, Maine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkie, F., Eisdorfer, C., and Nowlin, J. (1976). Memory and blood pressure in the aged.Exp. Aging Res. 2: 3–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R., Kimball, C., and Williard, H. (1972). The influence of interpersonal interaction on diastolic blood pressure.Psychosom. Med. 34: 194–198.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, W., and Elias, M. (1980). Essential hypertension and neuropsychological test performance. In M. Elias and D. H. P. Streeten (Eds.),Hypertension and Cognitive Processes. Beech Hill, Mount Desert, Maine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodworth, R. (1938). Reaction time. In R. Woodworth (Ed.),Experimental Psychology. Holt, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Working Group on Risk and High Blood Pressure. (1985). An epidemiological approach to describing risk associated with blood pressure levels.Hypertension 7: 641–651.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zamir, N., and Shuber, E. (1980). Altered pain perception in hypertensive humans.Brain Res. 201: 471–474.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zanchetti, A., Bacelli, G., and Mancia, G. (1971). Cardiovascular effects of emotional behavior. In C. Bartorelli and A. Zanchetti (Eds.),Cardiovascular Regulations in Health and Disease. Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Milan.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Washington and Lee University, 24450, Lexington, Virginia

    H. E. King

  2. Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 15213, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

    Robert E. Miller

Authors
  1. H. E. King
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robert E. Miller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

King, H.E., Miller, R.E. Hypertension: Cognitive and behavioral considerations. Neuropsychol Rev 1, 31–73 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01108858

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01108858

Key words

Search

Navigation