Summary
-
1.
The electrical activity of the fast flight muscles is recorded extracellularly using copper wires and conventional methods of amplification and display. Some features of the neuromuscular activity at the start of flight are illustrated and discussed (Fig. 1).
-
2.
A method is described for taking photographs of tethered, flying insects at up to 140 frames per sec, and correlating the wing movements with the electrical activity of the flight muscles.
-
3.
Abnormal “wingbeats”, in which the wings are only partially opened, are often observed before normal flight movement begin. They appear to be caused by incomplete activation of the flight muscles, or by the muscular force being applied to the wing at the wrong phase of its movement (Figs. 2–5).
-
4.
The elevator muscles raise the wing from its closed position to the position which it normally occupies at the top of each wingbeat in steady flight. From this position, the depressor muscles lower the wing in the stroke plane, if they are activated at the appropriate phase relative to the movement of the wing (Fig. 6).
-
5.
Thus wing opening depends upon the action of the muscles which raise and lower the wing in normal flight. It is suggested that the onset of normal flight movements depends upon improved internal co-ordination of the flight system, and not upon sensory feedback.
-
6.
It is concluded that the neuromuscular events and wing movements at the start of flight are a product of the neural mechanism which generate the rhythm of the wingbeats of steady flight.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Barber, S. B., Pringle, J. W. S.: Functional aspects of flight in belostomatid bugs (Heteroptera). Proc. roy. Soc. B164, 21–39 (1966).
Bentley, D. R.: Intracellular activity in cricket neurons during the generation of behaviour patterns. J. Insect Physiol.15, 677–699 (1969).
Gettrup, E.: Sensory regulation of wing twisting in locusts. J. exp. Biol.44, 1–16 (1966).
Gettrup, E.: Activity in the locust nerve cord in response to wing nerve stimulation. J.exp. Biol.52, 667–673 (1970).
Kammer, A. E.: Motor patterns during flight and warm-up in Lepidoptera. J. exp. Biol.48, 89–109 (1968).
Kendig, J. J.: Motorneuron coupling in locust flight. J. exp. Biol.48, 389–404 (1968).
Kutsch, W., Usherwood, P. N. R.: Studies on the innervation and electrical activity of the flight muscles of the locustSchistocerca gregaria. J. exp. Biol.52, 299–312 (1970).
La Greca, M.: Morfologia funzionale dell'articolozione alare degli Ortotteri. Arch. zool. ital.32, 271–327 (1947).
Nachtigall, W.: Elektrophysiologische und kinematische Untersuchungen über Start und Stop des Flugmotors von Fliegen. Z. vergl. Physiol.61, 1–20 (1968).
Nachtigall, W., Wilson, D. M.: Neuromuscular control of dipteran flight. J. exp. Biol.47, 77–97 (1967).
Pond, C. M.: The mechanism of initiation of the insect flight system. D. Phil. thesis, Oxford (1971).
Roeder, K. D.: Movements of the thorax and potential changes in the thoracic muscles of insects during flight. Biol. Bull. Woods Hole,100, 95–106 (1951).
Snodgrass, R. E.: The thoracic mechanism of the grasshopper and its antededent. Smithson. misc. Collns.82 (2) 1–112 (1929).
Svidersky, V. L.: Central mechanisms controlling the activity of locust flight muscles. J. Insect Physiol.13, 899–911 (1967).
Tiegs, O. W.: The flight muscles of insects: their anatomy and histology with some observations upon the structure of striated muscles in general. Phil. Trans. B238, 221–359 (1955).
Waldron, I.: Mechanisms for the production of the motor output pattern in flying locusts. J. exp. Biol.47, 201–212 (1967a).
Waldron, I.: Neural mechanisms by which controlling inputs influence motor output in the flying locust. J. exp. Biol.47, 213–228 (1967b).
Waldron, I.: The mechanism of coupling of the flight system oscillator to oscillatory inputs. Z. vergl. Physiol.57, 331–347 (1968).
Waldron, I., Wilson, D. M.: Latency relationships between loosely co-ordinated motorneurons. J. exp. Zool.170, 293–300 (1969).
Weis-Fogh, T.: An aerodynamic sense organ stimulating and regulating flight in locusts. Nature (Lond.)164, 873–874 (1949).
Weis-Fogh, T.: Biology and physics of locust flight. II. Flight performance of the Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria). Phil. Trans. B239, 459–510 (1956).
Wilson, D. M.: The central nervous control of flight in a locust. J. exp. Biol.38, 471–490 (1961).
Wilson, D. M.: Bifunctional muscle in the thorax of grasshoppers. J. exp. Biol.39, 669–677 (1962).
Wilson, D. M.: Central nervous mechanisms for the generation of rhythmic behaviour patterns in arthropods. Symp. Soc. exp. Biol.20, 199–228 (1966).
Wilson, D. M., Gettrup, E.: A stretch reflex controlling wingbeat frequency in grasshoppers. J. exp. Biol.40, 171–185 (1963).
Wilson, D. M., Weis-Fogh, T.: Patterned activity in co-ordinated motor units, studied in flying locusts. J. exp. Biol.39, 643–667 (1962).
Wilson, D. M., Wyman, R. J.: Motor output patterns during random and rhythmic stimulation of locust thoracic ganglia. Biophys.J. 5, 121–143 (1965).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Christopher Welch Scholar, Oxford University, 1968.
This work formed part of a thesis submitted for the degree of D. Phil, in the University of Oxford. I thank Professor J. W. S. Pringle, F.R. S. for supervision and comments upon the manuscript, and Professor T. Weis-Fogh and Professor D. Kennedy for helpful criticism of the manuscript.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pond, C.M. Neuromuscular activity and wing movements at the start of flight ofPeriplaneta americana andSchistocerca gregaria . J. Comp. Physiol. 78, 192–209 (1972). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00693612
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00693612