Skip to main content
Log in

Altruism, the free rider problem and group size

  • Published:
Theory and Decision Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper is a survey of recent theoretical work on the influence of group size, perceived effectiveness or noticeability of one's behavior on a group member's altruistic responses. Experiments on this problem are analyzed and evaluated, and problems for future research are outlined.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Bibliography

  • Adams, J. Stacy, ‘Toward an Understanding of Inequity’, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67 (1963) 422–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, J. Stacy, ‘Inequality in Social Exchange’, in L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 2. Academic Press, New York, 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Asch, S. E., ‘Studies of Independence and Conformity. I: A Minority of One Against a Unanimous Majority’, Psychological Monographs 70 (1956) (o, Whole No. 416).

  • Bales, R. F., Mills, T. M., Roseborough, Mary E., and Strodtbeck, F. L., Channels of Communication in Small Groups, American Sociological Review 16 (1951) 461–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L. and Daniels, L. R., ‘Responsibility and Dependency’, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 66 (1963) 429–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bos, Maria C., ‘Experimental Study of Productive Collaboration’, Acta Psychologica 3 (1937) 315–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryan, J. H. and Test, M. A., ‘Models and Helping: Naturalistic Studies in Aiding Behavior, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 6 (1967) 400–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, L., Haythorn, W., Lanzetta, J., and Mairowitz, B., ‘The Relation of Categorizations and Ratings in the Observation of Group Behavior’, Human Relations 4 (1951) 239–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, John, ‘The Provision of Collective Goods as a Function of Group Size’, Paper presented at the May, 1972 meetings of the Public Choice Society.

  • Clark, Russell D. and Word, Larry E., ‘Why Don't Bystanders Help? Because of Ambiguity?’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 24 (1972) 392–400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, Barry E. and Guetzkow, Harold, A Social Psychology of Group Processes for Decision-making, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darley, John M. and Latané, Bibb, ‘Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of Responsibility’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8 (1968) 377–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeSoto, C. and Kuethe, J. L., ‘Subjective Probabilities and Interpersonal Relationships’, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 59 (1959) 290–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deutsch, M., ‘An Experimental Study of the Effects of Cooperation and Competition upon Group Processes’, Human Relations 2 (1949) 199–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faust, W. L., ‘Group Versus Individual Problem-Solving’, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 59 (1959) 68–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L., Schachter, S., and Beck, K., Social Pressures in Informal Groups, Harper, New York, 1950.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, F. and Anderson, L., Effects of Task and Group Size upon Group Productivity and Member Satisfaction, Sociometry 34 (1971) 135ff.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frolich, N. and Oppenheimer, J., ‘I get by with a Little Help from my Friends’, World Politics 23 (1971) 104–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frolich, N., Oppenheimer, J., and Young, O., Political Leadership and Collective Goods, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibb, J. R., ‘The Effects of Group Size and the Threat Reduction upon Creativity in a Problem Solving situation’, American Psychologist 6 (1951) 324 [Abstract].

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, M., McGlynn, A., and Toledo, A., ‘Comparison of Individual and Group Performance of Size Three and Five with Various Initially Right and Wrong Tendenlies’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 7 (1967) 222–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, Martin S., Block, M. W., and Silverman, M. A., ‘Determinants of Helping Behavior: Person's Rewards and Other's Costs’, Journal of Personality 39 (1971) 79–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, L. and Goldman, M., ‘Competition and Non-Competition and Its Relationship to Individual and Group Productivity’, Sociometry 24 (1961) 46–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hare, A. Paul, ‘A Study of Interaction and Consensus in Different Sized Groups’, American Sociological Review 17 (1952), 261–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hare, A. Paul, Handbook of Small Group Research, Free Press, New York, 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, J., ‘A Preliminary Study of the Size Determinant in Small Group Interaction’, American Sociological Review 16 (1951) 474–477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, H. H. and Thibaut, J. W., ‘Experimental Studies of Group Problem Solving and Process’, in G. Lindzey (ed.), Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 2, AddisonWesley, Reading, Mass. 1954, pp. 735–785.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebbs, D. L., ‘Altruism - An Examination of the Concept and Review of the Literature’, Psychological Bulletin 73 (1970) 258–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, J. M. and Messe, L. A., ‘Equity and the Distribution of Rewards’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 20 (1971) 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Latané, Bibb and Darley, John M., ‘Group Inhibition of Bystander Intervention’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 10 (1968) 215–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Latané, Bibb and Darley, John M., ‘Bystander ‘Apathy’’, American Scientist 57 (1969) 244–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Latané, Bibb and Rodin, J., A Lady in Distress: Inhibiting Effects of Friends and Strangers on Bystander Intervention', Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 5 (1969) 198–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy, Peter, Lundgren, D., Ansel, M., Fell, D., Fink, B., and McGrath, J. E., ‘By-stander Effect in a Demand-Without-Threat Situation’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 24 (1972) 166–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorge, J., Fox, D., Davitz, J., and Brenner, M., ‘A Survey of Studies Contrasting the Quality of Group Performance and Individual Performance, 1920–1957’, Psychological Bulletin 55 (1958) 337–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorge, J. and Solomon, H., ‘Two Models of Group Behavior in the Solution of Eureka-Type Problems’, Psychometrika 20 (1955) 139–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lotka, Alfred A., ‘The Frequency Distribution of Scientific Productivity’, Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 16 (1926) 317–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macauley, J. and Berkowitz, L. (eds.), Altruism and Helping Behavior, Academic Press, New York, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marquart, Dorothy I., ‘Group Problem Solving’, Journal of Social Psychology 41 (1955) 103–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCurdy, H. G. and Lambert, W. E., ‘The Efficiency of Small Human Groups in the Solution of Problems Requiring Genuine Cooperation’, Journal of Personality 20 (1952) 478–494.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, Marshall W., ‘Size and the Structure of Organizations: A Causal Analysis’, American Sociological Review 37 (1972) 434–441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Midlarsky, Elizabeth, ‘Aiding Responses: An Analysis and Review’, Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 14 (1968) 229–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nord, Walter R., ‘Social Exchange Theory: An Integrative Approach to Social Conformity’, Psychological Bulletin 71 (1969) 174–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, M., The Logic of Collective Action, Schocken, New York, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, M. and Zeckhauser, R., ‘An Economic Theory of Alliances’, The Review of Economics and Statistics 48 (1966) 266–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pugh, D. S., Hickson, D. J., Hinings, C. R., and Turner, C., ‘Dimensions of Organization Structure’, Administrative Science Quarterly 13 (1968) 64–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenhan, D. and White, G. M., ‘Observation and Rehearsal as Determinants of Prosocial Behavior’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 5 (1967) 424–431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, Shalom H., ‘Elicitation of Moral Obligation and Self-Sacrificing Behavior: An Experimental Study of Volunteering to Be a Bone Marrow Donor’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 15 (1970) 283–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, Shalom H. and Clausen, G. T., ‘Responsibility, Norms and Helping in an Emergency’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16 (1970) 299–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, Marjorie E., ‘A Comparison of Individuals and Small Groups in the Rational Solution of Complex Problems’, American Journal of Psychology 44 (1932) 491–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shiflett, Samuel C., ‘Group Performance as a Function of Task Difficulty and Organizational Interdependence’, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 7 (1972) 442–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • South, E. B., ‘Some Psychological Aspects of Committee Work’, Journal of Applied Psychology 348–368.

  • Steiner, Ivan D., ‘Models for Inferring Relationships Between Group Size and Potential Group Productivity’, Behavioral Science 11 (1966) 273–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steiner, Ivan D. and Rajaratnam, Nageswari, ‘A Model for the Comparison of Individual and Group Performance Scores’, Behavioral Science 6 (1961) 142–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweeney, John W., Jr., ‘An Experimental Investigation of the Free-Rider Problem’, Social Science Research 2 (1973) 277–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, D. W., ‘Problem Solving by Groups’, Proceedings of XIV International Congress of Psychology, 1954, North Holland Publishing, Amsterdam, 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, E. J., ‘Effects of Facilitative Role Interdependence on Group Functioning’, Human Relations 10 (1957) 347–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldman, S. R., Foundations of Political Action: An Exchange Theory of Politics, Little, Brown and Co., Boston, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, G. B., ‘Do Groups Think More Efficiently than Individuals?’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology 23 (1928) 328–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, Geoffrey and Monaca, The Analysis of Social Change, Cambridge University Press, 1945.

  • Zajonc, R. B., ‘The Effects of Feedback and Probability of Group Success on Individual and Group Performance’, Human Relations 15 (1962) 149–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zajonc, R. B. and Smoke, W. H., ‘Optimal Task Assignments for Group Performance’, in N. F. Washburne (ed.), Decisions, Values and Groups, Macmillan, New York, 1962, 279–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziff, George K., Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort, Addison-Wesley, Cambridge, Mass., 1949.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Additional information

This paper is a revised version of a paper originally presented at the March 1973 meetings of the Public Choice Society. In preparing this paper I have benefited from criticisms and suggestions made by a number of people and I wish to take this opportunity to thank them. Among them are John Bonin, Barry Groffman, Bob O'Gorman, Don Moon, George Reynolds and Harrison Wagner.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Sweeney, J.W. Altruism, the free rider problem and group size. Theor Decis 4, 259–275 (1974). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00136649

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00136649

Keywords

Navigation