Introduction

Abiotic stress, such as drought, high temperature, cold, and salinity, is a primary factor of reduced crop productivity due to serious disruptions in plant growth and development1. Therefore, plants have evolved complex regulatory mechanisms in their defense responses to adverse conditions. All mechanisms are based on proteins that directly function in abiotic tolerance and that regulate various signaling pathways to indirectly improve abiotic tolerance. The late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) protein gene family is an important group of functional proteins to reduce cell damage and protect cells under abiotic stress conditions2,3.

LEA genes were first observed in late-stage mature cotton seeds4. Since then, they have been detected in seedlings, leaves, stems, roots and other organs of many other plants mostly under abiotic stress conditions that result in cellular dehydration5,6. LEA genes have also been identified in bacteria and invertebrates7,8. LEA proteins accumulate during late embryonic development and can be induced by various abiotic stresses9. Compared with other proteins involved in abiotic stress tolerance, LEA proteins have no significant enzymatic activity; however, LEA proteins, as intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs), are highly hydrophilic and intrinsically unstructured in the hydrated state but partially fold into mainly α-helical structures under dehydration conditions5,7. This feature allows them to function as chaperones via preventing protein aggregation during abiotic stress10,11. In addition, LEA proteins contribute to the stabilization of membranes, binding of calcium and metal ions, interactions between DNA and RNA, and the protection of functional proteins against aggregation12,13,14,15.

Based on conserved motifs, amino acid sequences and phylogenetic relationships, LEA proteins are essentially classified into eight groups: LEA_1, LEA_2, LEA_3, LEA_4, LEA_5, LEA_6, dehydrin (DHN) and seed maturation protein (SMP)16,17,18. Genome-wide characterizations of LEA family proteins have been performed in several plant species, such as Arabidopsis thaliana18, Brassica napus19, Citrus sinensis20, Dendrobium officinale21, Hordeum vulgare22, legumes23, Malus domestica24, Oryza sativa25, Pinus tabuliformis26, Populus trichocarpa27, Prunus mume28, Solanum tuberosum29, and Zea mays30. However, few LEA genes have been identified in wheat.

Recently, the chromosome-based draft genome of the bread wheat “Chinese Spring” was published31, making the identification and analysis of the LEA gene family in wheat possible. Therefore, in the present study, we performed a genome-wide analysis of LEA genes in wheat to characterize their sequences, evolutionary relationships, putative functions and expression patterns in response to different abiotic stresses.

Results

Sequences and characteristics of the TaLEA genes

A total of 179 LEA proteins were identified from wheat (Table S5) based on a Pfam ID search of wheat genome databases and homologous sequence alignment with LEA genes from A. thaliana and T. aestivum. The TaLEA genes were classified into eight subfamilies based on their conserved domains (Fig. 1). The LEA_2 and DHN families were the largest, with 49 and 50 members, respectively. The LEA_1, LEA_3, LEA_4, LEA_5, and SMP families included 16, 15, 24, 13, and 9 members, respectively. The LEA_6 family included only 3 members.

Figure 1
figure 1

Phylogenetic tree of TaLEA proteins in wheat. The Maximum Likelihood (ML) tree was generated using MEGA7 with 1000 bootstrap replicates. LEA gene families are distinguished by different colors.

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The TaLEA genes encode polypeptides of 89–1062 amino acids in length, with predicted molecular weights ranging from 9.1 to 108.7 kDa. An analysis of their physicochemical properties (Table S5) revealed that 112 LEA proteins (63%) have relatively high isoelectric points (pI > 7). The remaining 67 proteins have pI < 7, including all LEA_5 and LEA_6 proteins and some members of other families. The calculated grand average of hydropathy index (GRAVY) values suggested that 151 proteins (84%) are quite hydrophilic and that 28 members (16%) are hydrophobic, with the latter group of proteins all belonging to the LEA_2 family. Subcellular localization prediction indicated that LEA_1, LEA_5, LEA_6, and SMP proteins are located exclusively in the nucleus; most of the LEA_2 and LEA_3 proteins are in the chloroplast; LEA_4 proteins are in the cell wall and nucleus; and DHN proteins are in the cytoplasm and nucleus.

Structural characterization of the TaLEA genes

To investigate the structural characteristics of the LEA genes, the exon-intron structures (Fig. 2B) and conserved motifs (Fig. 2C) of 179 TaLEA genes were analyzed. The majority of the TaLEA genes contain zero or one intron, and only 6 TaLEA genes (TaLEA_4-1, TaLEA_4-20, TaLEA_4-21, TaLEA_4-23, TaSMP4, and TaDHN5) have two or three introns (Fig. 2B). Members of each TaLEA subfamily have similar exon-intron structures, and TaLEAs with closer evolutionary relationships had more similar numbers and lengths of introns and exons.

Figure 2
figure 2

Cis-acting elements on promoters (A) exon–intron organization (B) and conversed motif in the different groups (C) of the TaLEA genes.

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Motif analysis indicated that 179 TaLEA proteins lack high similarity (Fig. S2). Nevertheless, members of each LEA subfamily have several conserved group-specific domains (Figs 2C and S3). For example, motif 4 of LEA_2, which is present in all TaLEA_2 proteins, encodes a conserved LEA domain. The K-segment (motif 1 and motif 4 of the DHN group), an important conserved motif in the DHN family, exists in all DHNs. Interestingly, DHN members except YnKn- and KnS-type DHNs induced only YnSKn-, SKn- and Kn-type DHNs in wheat. Most of the closely related genes in the evolutionary relationships of each family exhibit similar motif compositions, suggesting functional similarities in the LEA family. These results indicate that the composition of the structural motifs varies among different LEA families but is similar within families and that the motifs encoding the LEA domains are conserved.

Chromosomal locations of the TaLEA genes

The chromosomal locations of the identified TaLEA genes in wheat were mapped to the corresponding chromosomes by the MapChart tool. Of the 179 TaLEA genes, 177 could be mapped to the assembled chromosome, whereas two genes (TaDHN27 and TaDHN35) were distributed across an unassembled scaffold (Fig. 3 and Table S5). TaLEAs were extensively and unevenly distributed on different chromosomes. Chromosomes 5B contained the largest number of TaLEA genes, with 19 genes. In contrast, only two were annotated on chromosomes 7B. TaLEA genes were approximately evenly and similarly distributed in the A (57), B (61), and D (59) subgenomes. For example, the 1A, 1B and 1D chromosomes had similar numbers of LEA_2, LEA_3, LEA_4, and LEA_5 genes, and the evolutionary relationships in each subfamily were close (Fig. 1). In addition, different LEA subfamilies had different gene distributions on different chromosomes. The LEA_1 genes were distributed on chromosomes 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7. The LEA_2 genes were distributed on all chromosomes except chromosome 6. LEA_3s were mainly distributed on chromosomes 1, 3 and 5. LEA_4s were distributed on chromosomes 1, 2, 3, and 4, and LEA_5s were distributed on chromosomes 1 and 3. SMPs were distributed on chromosomes 4, 5, and 7. DHNs were distributed on chromosomes 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. Thus, the chromosomal locations of TaLEA genes in wheat may be caused by LEA gene duplication patterns.

Figure 3
figure 3

Chromosome distributions of TaLEA genes in wheat. LEA gene subfamilies are distinguished by different colors.

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Analysis of cis-acting elements in the promoter of the TaLEA genes

The presence of multiple different cis-acting elements in the gene promoters may indicate that these genes perform different functions. To explore the cis-acting elements in the TaLEA gene promoters, we extracted approximately 2 kb of the upstream genomic sequence of each gene transcription start site (TSS) and then searched the PlantCARE database to identify and count the cis-acting elements associated with plant growth and development and stress response (Fig. 2A and Table S6). For cis-acting regulatory elements associated with plant hormone responses, abscisic acid (ABA)-responsive elements (ABREs) (92.7%), which respond to ABA and regulate downstream gene expression, were found in most TaLEA gene promoters. In addition, TaLEA_3-8 had the most (11) ABREs in its promoter. CGTCA motifs and TGACG motifs involved in the methyl jasmonate (MeJA) response were also identified, accounting for approximately 67.6%. There were also a few TaLEA gene promoters that included auxin response elements (TGA-elements), ethylene response elements (EREs), gibberellin response elements (GAREs), and salicylic acid response elements (TCA-elements). At the same time, we also identified a large number of cis-acting elements related to plant stress response, MYB (91.6%), MYC (64.2%), W box (27.4%) and TC-rich repeats (10.6%), which can participate in a variety of plant responses to abiotic stress. DRE, LTRE and STRE are capable of responding to drought, low-temperature and heat stress, respectively. WRE is associated with plant damage and infection by pathogens. These results indicate that the TaLEA genes may participate in the growth and development of plants through the ABA pathway and respond to various stresses.

Determining the endogenous wheat ABA content and expression patterns of TaLEA genes under ABA and abiotic stress treatments

To investigate the expression patterns of the LEA genes in wheat under abiotic stress, a microarray analysis of TaLEA genes was carried out (Fig. 4 and Table S7). We found that all TaLEA genes were expressed in at least one of the stress treatments tested, and these genes displayed various expression patterns. In addition, 139 TaLEA genes were responsive to all stresses. Under cold stress, the expression of 157 TaLEA genes was induced. Among these, 46 genes were upregulated by cold stress, with upregulation ranging from 2.01–5.96-fold. TaDHN41 had the highest expression level after 56 days under cold stress. A total of 177 TaLEA genes were induced by drought. Among these, 50 TaLEAs were upregulated by drought stress, with a 2.02–8.87-fold upregulation. The expression of TaDHN18, TaDHN23, and TaDHN31 was highest after 5 days under drought stress. Twenty-five TaLEA genes were induced by high salinity, with a 2.09–5.74-fold upregulation. Under high-temperature stress, there was no obvious change in the expression of most TaLEA genes.

Figure 4
figure 4

Expression profiles of the TaLEA genes in wheat. Dynamic expression profiles of TaLEA genes high temperature, salt, cold and drought treatments using publicly available microarray data.

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To confirm the results of the microarray data, we selected 29 TaLEA genes belonging to LEA_1, LEA_2, LEA_3, LEA_4, LEA_5, LEA_6, SMP and three DHN subfamilies to investigate the expression patterns of TaLEA genes in wheat seedlings subjected to ABA and abiotic stress treatments by real-time PCR (Fig. 5). The expression of all TaLEA genes was upregulated with ABA, cold, PEG, salt and heat treatments. Interestingly, cis-acting elements that responded to ABA were not identified in the promoter of TaSMP1 (Fig. 2A); however, TaSMP1 was still induced by ABA, probably due to the lack of the 673–1017 bp upstream genomic sequence of the TaSMP1 TSS. These results suggested that they may play vital roles under these stress conditions.

Figure 5
figure 5

Expression of TaLEA genes in response to ABA, heat, NaCl, cold, and PEG treatments determined by real-time PCR. The expression level of wheat actin was used as the internal control to standardize the RNA samples for each reaction. The values are the mean ± SE from three samples.

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We also determined the endogenous ABA content in wheat leaves under different stress treatments (Fig. 6). The ABA content in wheat leaves increased gradually under PEG, high-salt, low-temperature and high-temperature treatments from 0 h to 48 h. In contrast, the expression most TaLEA genes were downregulated at 48 h under cold, PEG and salt stress. Thus, we speculated that these genes were regulated via two pathways: one that requires ABA directly and another that is induced by osmotic stress independently of ABA synthesis.

Figure 6
figure 6

Endogenous ABA content in wheat leaves under heat, NaCl, cold, and PEG stresses as determined by ELISA. The values are the mean ± SE from three samples and significant differences were indicated as (*)p < 0.05, and (**)p < 0.01.

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Enhancement of the tolerance of recombinant E. coli and yeast cells to salt and heat-

To determine the function of TaLEA proteins in stress conditions, we selected one gene from each LEA group, transformed the gene into E. coli and yeast to construct the recombinants pET28a-TaLEA or pPI3.5k-TaLEA, and carried out salt and heat treatments.

For the salt treatment, E. coli strains carrying 5 TaLEA genes had mean viability ratios 2-7-fold higher than those of the control strain under heat stress (Fig. 5A). Among these genes, TaLEA_3-3 (~7.01-fold), TaLEA_4-1 (~6.45-fold), TaLEA_6-2 (~1.94-fold) and TaDHN43 (~4.24-fold) had significantly higher survival ratios than other genes under different concentrations. In addition, strains carrying the TaLEA genes showed almost no growth at 500 mM and 600 mM NaCl treatments. Similarly, yeast transformed with pPI3.5k-TaLEA_3-3, TaLEA_4-1, TaLEA_6-2, TaSMP8 and TaDHN43 showed better growth than the control (pPI3.5k).

For the heat treatment, our results demonstrated that E. coli strains carrying six (TaLEA_1-5, TaLEA_3-3, TaLEA_4-1, TaLEA_5-1, TaSMP8, and TaDHN43) of the eight TaLEA genes had mean viability ratios 2-3-fold higher than those of the control strain under salt stress (Fig. 5B). Among these genes, TaDHN43 (~2.74-fold) showed the highest viability ratio after induction at 50 °C for 30 min. After they were induced at 50 °C for 60 min and 120 min, TaLEA_1-5 (~1.98-fold) and TaLEA_3-3 (~2.76-fold) had the highest viability ratios, respectively. In addition, the viability ratio of TaLEA_1-5, TaLEA_3-3, TaLEA_4-1, TaLEA_5-1, and TaDHN43 was higher than that of the control strain after induction at 50 °C for 180 min. There were no differences in the mean viability ratios between other TaLEA genes and the control strain. Consistent with response of the E. coli recombinants under heat stress, the yeast transformed with pPI3.5k-TaLEA_1-5, TaLEA_3-3, TaLEA_4-1, TaLEA_5-1, TaSMP8, and TaDHN43 showed better growth than the control, and the transformed yeast reached the stationary phase faster than the control.

Discussion

Molecular characteristics and phylogenetics of the wheat LEA gene family

LEA genes play crucial roles in embryonic development and in response to abiotic stress5. The LEA gene family has been reported in many crops; in contrast, genome-wide identification and annotation of LEA genes have not been reported in T. aestivum. In this study, 179 TaLEA genes were identified in the T. aestivum genome (Table S1), which is the most abundant LEA gene family identified in plants so far. Based on phylogenetic analyses, these 179 TaLEA genes belong to eight groups of the LEA gene family.

Motif analysis of the TaLEA proteins showed that members of each LEA group contained specific conserved motifs (Fig. 2) that have been previously identified in several plant species, such as A. thaliana18, D. officinale21 and P. trichocarpa27. The conserved motifs observed within each LEA group determine the probable origin within the groups and indicate that the TaLEA proteins have group-specific functions.

In recent years, some research has reported that stress-response genes generally contain relatively few introns27. Notably, 173 of the 179 (97%) TaLEA genes have less than one intron. Low intron numbers have also been observed in other stress-response gene families, such as the glutathione transferase family27. Introns can have a deleterious effect on gene expression by delaying transcript production. Introns can delay regulatory responses by extending the length of the nascent transcript, resulting in an additional energetic cost due to increased transcript length32.

Subcellular localization analyses showed the presence of TaLEA proteins in all subcellular compartments, including the nucleus, cell membranes, cell walls, mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi apparatus, and cytoplasm, as also reported for Arabidopsis18 and tomato33. There is a strong implication that LEA proteins from the principal groups are ubiquitous within cells and their respective tissues, suggesting that their function is required in all cellular compartments during stress34.

Expression and function of wheat LEA genes in response to abiotic stress

Analysis of the physicochemical properties revealed that the TaLEA proteins had common characteristics, such as small molecular weights and rich hydrophilic amino acids (Table S5), as reported in D. officinale and P. tabuliformis21,26. Most LEA proteins are predicted to have no stable secondary structure in solution, i.e., IDPs, but they may acquire α-helical structures upon dehydration35. This characteristic of LEA proteins allows them to change their conformation according to the changes in their ambient microenvironment, resulting in multiple functions in abiotic stress10.

Many studies have shown that LEA genes play an important role in abiotic stress, such as low-temperature, drought and high-salinity stress36. Moreover, LEA gene subgroups have evolved different adaptive effects against abiotic stress, as reported in D. officinale and P. tabuliformis21,26. According to the results of the microarray analysis, the response of most TaLEA genes to salt, cold and drought stress was obvious, and genes were especially significantly expressed in the TaDHN group, followed by the TaLEA_1 and TaLEA_4 groups (Fig. 4 and Table S7). The expression of most TaLEA genes had no obvious difference under heat stress, probably due to a lack of adequate induction time data in public databases. These results indicate that the DHN group is a valuable genetic resource in stress resistance research.

The expression patterns of the TaLEA genes in wheat under low-temperature, high-temperature, salt, and osmotic stress were analyzed by real-time PCR (Figs 4 and S4). These TaLEA genes were all upregulated in response to various stresses, and TaLEA genes with closely related evolutionary relationships had similar expression patterns. In potato, most StLEA genes from the LEA_1, LEA_2, LEA_3, LEA_6, ASR, and DHN groups were upregulated after low-temperature, high-temperature, salt and drought treatments37. In rice, the expression of genes in the LEA1, LEA2, LEA3 and DHN groups was upregulated under osmotic stress and salt stress38,39, while in tomato, the expression of genes in the LEA1, LEA2, LEA4, and DHN groups was upregulated after drought and salt stress33. These results indicate that nearly all LEA family genes can be induced by various abiotic stresses.

Previously, functional expression screening of LEA proteins from various plant species was successfully performed in E. coli and yeast exposed to abiotic stress. Here, we demonstrated that recombinants expressing LEA_3, LEA_4, and DHN proteins grew and survived better under salt and high-temperature stress than E. coli and yeast not expressing LEA proteins (Fig. 7). In addition, LEA_6 proteins enhanced the tolerance of E. coli and yeast cells to salt, and LEA_1, LEA_5, SMP proteins enhanced the tolerance of host cells to high temperature. DHNs and their respective truncated derivatives with at least one K-segment obviously ensured E. coli stabilization under desiccation, high-temperature, and cold treatments40,41. Jie Gao et al.40,41 and Hong Ling et al.21 investigated most LEA groups except LEA_6 and determined that these LEA groups enhanced E. coli tolerance to salt and high temperature, whereas some LEA_3 and SMP group members could not improve E. coli tolerance under salt and high-temperature stress. These results indicate that LEA genes have evolved different adaptive functions and play important roles in plants against various abiotic stresses.

Figure 7
figure 7

Overexpression enhances tolerance to salt and heat stresses in recombinant E. coli and yeast cells. Cell Viability ratio of E. coli transformed with pET28a-TaLEA and pET28a (as control group) under salt (A) and heat (B) treatments. Growth curves of yeast transformed with Ppic3.5K-TaLEA and Ppic3.5K (as control group) under salt (C) and heat (D) treatments. The values are the mean ± SE from three samples.

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Methods

Identification of the LEA family genes in the wheat genome

LEA genes were identified in Triticum aestivum based on homology with 51 Arabidopsis LEA protein sequences and 54 wheat DHN EST contigs via a BLAST search against the wheat genomic database on Phytozome (https://phytozome.jgi.doe.gov/pz/portal.html) and Ensembl (http://plants.ensembl.org/Triticum_aestivum/Info/Index) servers. The open reading frames of TaLEA genes were repredicted and corrected using Fgenesh and Fgenesh + software (http://www.softberry.com) in the wheat database. In addition, we also identified LEA proteins in wheat protein sequence data using the BLAST HMM profile (http://pfam.xfam.org) of LEA_1 (PF03760), LEA_2 (PF03168), LEA_3 (PF03242), LEA_4 (PF02987), LEA_5 (PF00477), LEA_6 (PF10714), SMP (PF04927) and DHN (PF00257). All of the identified TaLEA candidates were analyzed using the Hidden Markov Model of the Pfam database (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/hmmer/) and the NCBI Conserved Domain database (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/cdd) to confirm the conserved domains of the LEA proteins. Finally, we retrieved 179 TaLEA genes classified into 8 LEA protein subfamilies.

Phylogenetic relationships, gene structures, conserved motifs and chromosomal locations of the TaLEA genes

The phylogenetic tree was constructed by the maximum-likelihood method with 1000 bootstrap replicates in MEGA 7.0 software42. The exon-intron structures were identified using the Gene Structure Display Server (GSDS) (http://gsds.cbi.pku.edu.cn/) by comparing CDSs and genomic DNA sequences43. Multiple EM for Motif Elicitation (MEME) (http://meme.sdsc.edu/meme) was used to identify the conserved motifs encoded by the TaLEA family genes44. The chromosomal locations of each TaLEA gene were mapped to each chromosome according to their positions in the wheat genome. The identified positions were then marked on the chromosomes using the MapChart tool45.

Promoter sequences and microarray-based expression pattern analysis

The promoter sequences, which were approximately 2000 bp upstream of the TSS of the TaLEA genes, were acquired from the wheat database, and the cis-elements in the promoters were analyzed with the PlantCARE database46.

The coding sequences of TaLEAs were submitted to the Plex database (http://www.plexdb.org/) to search for corresponding probes. These probes were then used as queries to obtain the expression data of the TaLEA genes in GeneVestigator software (https://genevestigator.com/gv/).

Plant materials and treatments

Wheat seeds of “Chinese Spring” were germinated on moist filter paper at 25/18 °C (day/night) with a photoperiod of 16 h/day. For abiotic stress treatment, seedlings grown in hydroponic culture for two weeks were exposed to 100 μM ABA, high temperature (42 °C), high salinity (800 mM NaCl), cold (4 °C), and 20% PEG 6000 (w/v), as described previously47. In each treatment, the leaf tissues were collected every 12 h for 48 h, frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at −80 °C.

RNA isolation and real-time PCR analysis

RNApure Plant Kit (CWBIO) was used to isolate total RNA from each frozen sample, and first-strand cDNA was synthesized from total RNA (1 μg) by using PrimeScript™ II 1st Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (TaKaRa) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The sequence was amplified using gene-specific primers (Table S2) with TransTaq-T DNA Polymerase (TransGen), and the Actin gene was used as an internal control. The real-time PCR cycling parameters were 94 °C for 30 s, followed by 45 cycles at 94 °C for 5 s and 55 °C for 30 s, with a melting curve analysis from 60 °C to 90 °C at a rate of 0.5 °C/5 s. All reactions were performed in triplicate to ensure the reproducibility of the results.

Endogenous ABA content assays

The endogenous ABA content of wheat leaf tissues was measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), as described previously48.

In vivo assay of the stress tolerance of transformed E. coli

We selected 8 TaLEA genes representing each group, inserted the genes into the pET28a vector and then transformed the vectors into the E. coli host strain BL21 (DE3). The primers are shown in Supplementary Table S3. Recombinant proteins were induced with 1 mM isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) for 6 h when recombinant E. coli BL21 (DE3) density reached an OD600 of 0.6 in LB liquid medium containing 50 μg/mL kanamycin at 37 °C. The E. coli cells were harvested by centrifugation, resuspended in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), and then analyzed by SDS-PAGE (Fig. S1).

Heat and salt tolerance assays were performed as described previously48. IPTG-induced E. coli (pET28a-TaLEA) cell cultures were diluted to the same OD600 value, transferred to 50 °C, sampled at 60, 120, 180 and 180 min, and plated (20 μL) onto LB plates. For the salt treatment, after IPTG induction, 20 μL of each sample (same OD600 value) was spotted onto LB plates containing 300 mM, 400 mM, 500 mM, and 600 mM NaCl. The viability ratio of the transformants under heat and salt conditions was calculated by counting the number of colonies after incubation of the plate overnight at 37 °C. Cell viability ratio = (colony number on stressed plate/colony number on unstressed plate) × 100%. For all experiments (heat and salt), the means of three experiments were determined from three independent transformants. Here, E. coli with the empty vector (pET28a) was the control group.

In vivo assay of the stress tolerance of transformed yeast

The eight selected TaLEA genes were inserted into the Ppic3.5 K vector and then transformed into the Pichia yeast strain GS115, as described previously49,50,51. The primers are shown in Supplementary Table S4. Recombinant yeast cells were inoculated into buffered glycerol-complex medium (BMGY; 1% yeast extract, 2% peptone, 1.34% yeast nitrogen base (YNB), 10 mM K3PO4, 4 × 10−5 mM biotin, and 1% glycerin) to induce TaLEA gene expression at 30 °C until the stationary phase of growth was reached. Then, the cells were collected by centrifugation and resuspended in 200 mL induction buffered methanol-complex medium (BMMY; 1% yeast extract, 2% peptone, 10 mM K3PO4, 1.34% YNB, 4 × 10−5 mM biotin, and 0.5% methanol) and then incubated at 30 °C for 4 days. Methanol was added every 24 h to a final concentration of 0.5%. Cell cultures of induced yeast (Ppic3.5K-TaLEA) were diluted to the same OD600 value of 0.8, and 1 mL cells was inoculated into 150 mL of BMGY medium containing 1.2 M NaCl and then induced at 30 °C. For heat stress treatments, 1 mL cells was inoculated into 150 mL of BMGY medium and induced at 40 °C. Growth was monitored with a spectrophotometer by measuring the OD600 every 5 h.