1 Introduction

Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. or Salvia rosmarinus Spenn., commonly known as rosemary, stands as a botanical treasure with a rich history deeply intertwined with diverse cultural, medicinal, and culinary traditions [1,2,3,4,5]. Originating in the Mediterranean region, rosemary, an evergreen aromatic plant, has transcended geographical boundaries and captured global attention due to its multifaceted nature and versatile applications. The extensive characteristics of this plant encompass various facets, including its components, extraction techniques, bioactive constituents, and diverse uses. Additionally, this entails instances involving the blossoms and foliage of rosemary, dehydrated leaves, and the essential oil (see Fig. 1) [5,6,7]. In this extensive review, a journey is undertaken to reveal the exceptional qualities of rosemary, delving into its importance in nutrition, diverse applications, and the state-of-the-art techniques utilized for its advanced extraction. The interest in rosemary extends across various domains, from traditional medicine to modern scientific research, reflecting its profound impact on human well-being [5]. Over the centuries, rosemary has been an integral part of medicinal practices, featuring prominently in Ayurvedic medicine, traditional Chinese medicine, and other holistic approaches [2, 8]. Its significance has only intensified in contemporary times, garnering attention even during extraordinary scenarios such as the recent global pandemic [9, 10]. In this context, the scientific community has witnessed a burgeoning interest in phytotherapy, the branch of medicine harnessing the therapeutic potential of plants and their components [11,12,13]. Delving into the multifaceted nature of rosemary requires acknowledging its historical roots. The traditional roles of rosemary as a flavoring agent, aromatic herb, and therapeutic remedy have played a significant role in its widespread cultivation globally [14,15,16]. The plant’s resilience and adaptability have enabled its integration into diverse cultural practices and cookings, making it a staple in both culinary and medicinal landscapes [17,18,19]. Furthermore, rosemary extracts have found their place in the food industry, where they are embraced for their natural antioxidant properties [20, 21]. Notably, these extracts have received recognition from regulatory bodies, such as the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status from the US Food and Drug Administration, attesting to their safety and applicability [22, 23]. In recent years, the scientific community has witnessed a remarkable surge in research focused on rosemary [8]. This surge can be attributed to the growing recognition of rosemary’s therapeutic potential and the development of innovative methods for extracting its bioactive constituents [7, 23, 24]. Among the plethora of active compounds within rosemary, rosmarinic acid, phenolic diterpenes like carnosic acid and carnosol, flavonoids, and the essential oil have emerged as key players in contributing to its diverse biological activities [25, 26]. These compounds exhibit a spectrum of effects, ranging from anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties to potential anticancer activity, neuroprotective effects, and regulatory actions on metabolic disorders [27, 28].

Fig. 1
figure 1

Copyright 2023, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Illustrates the characteristics of rosemary concerning different plant components, extraction techniques, bioactive compounds, and various applications. Examples within the frames include depictions of rosemary flowers, leaves, dried rosemary leaves, and rosemary oil. Reproduced with permission [7].

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The review also sheds light on the geographical distribution of rosemary, emphasizing its prevalence in the Mediterranean region while acknowledging its global cultivation. The variation in the plant’s chemical composition due to factors such as climate, age, and extraction methods underscores the complexity of its phytochemical profile [1, 15]. Researchers have made significant strides in characterizing the bioactive compounds present in rosemary, providing a foundation for understanding its pharmacological effects [1, 29, 30]. The nutritional properties of rosemary are explored in depth, with a particular focus on its flavonoids, triterpenic acids, and essential oil components [8, 29, 31]. Luteolin, a prominent flavone compound, has demonstrated a myriad of pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects [32]. Meanwhile, triterpenic acids like ursolic and oleanolic acid exhibit diverse bioactivities, holding promise for applications in treating conditions such as cancer [33,34,35]. The essential oil, with its varied composition of monoterpenes, has found utility in the food and cosmetic industries, particularly as a natural antioxidant agent [36, 37]. The application of rosemary goes beyond traditional medicine and culinary pursuits. In the realm of insecticides, rosemary has a historical role dating back thousands of years, demonstrating its efficacy in repelling medically important insects and pests affecting stored products [38,39,40]. Its role as a botanical insecticide aligns with a broader trend of exploring plant-based alternatives, given the drawbacks associated with synthetic insecticides [41]. Moreover, the review delves into the therapeutic potential of rosemary in addressing various dermatological diseases [5]. The focus is placed on its antioxidant role and ongoing efforts to elucidate the molecular pathways involved in its pathogenetic effects [42]. The exploration encompasses studies on the plant’s efficacy in treating neurodegenerative diseases, prion diseases, cerebral ischemia, neuropathic pain, and encephalomyelitis, reflecting a promising avenue for future research [43,44,45,46]. In the cosmetic realm, rosemary has established itself as a sought-after ingredient, featuring prominently in a myriad of products ranging from essential oils for massages to anti-wrinkle creams [2, 47]. The extensive exploration of rosemary from a cosmetic perspective adds a novel dimension to its narrative, considering its historical ethnomedicinal significance and its journey from natural environments to formulations of cosmetic and cosmeceutical products [2, 48].

This review also underscores the ongoing advancements in extraction methods, highlighting the pivotal role of nanomedicine in enhancing the bioavailability of key compounds such as rosmarinic acid. The utilization of nanocarriers, including nanoemulsions and liposomes, showcases the intersection of traditional herbal knowledge with modern technological innovations, creating a bridge between ancient wisdom and contemporary science. In the upcoming sections, a thorough examination of rosemary unfolds, delving into its nutritional characteristics, varied uses in medicine, agriculture, and cosmetics, and the advanced extraction methods that have propelled it to the forefront of scientific investigation. Navigating through the complex web of rosemary’s multifaceted attributes reveals a profound insight, underscoring its enduring significance and its capacity to influence the trajectories of nutrition, healthcare, and technological innovation.

2 Nutritional composition of rosemary

The applications span various fields, and the advantages are grounded in the bioactive compounds present in rosemary, such as monoterpenes, rosmarinic acid, and carnosic acid or others (see Fig. 2) [5].

Fig. 2
figure 2

Copyright 2020, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Illustrates the chemical composition of certain secondary metabolites found in rosemary: carnosol (A), carnosic acid (B), rosmarinic acid (C), ursolic acid (D), oleanolic acid (E), and micromeric acid (F). Reproduced with permission [5].

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There are over 20 distinct types, varieties, or cultivars of R. officinalis identified based on morphological descriptors such as calyx, corolla, leaf dimensions, inflorescence, and the existence of glandular trichomes. Nevertheless, the infraspecific systematics remains perplexing and ambiguous [16]. This plant has garnered considerable attention for its diverse nutritional implications, evident in its influence on both human diets and animal nutrition. The nutritional profile of rosemary exhibits significant variation, attributed to factors such as species, varieties, growth conditions, harvesting times, soil properties, climate, origin, and geographic parameters [49, 50]. The plant’s proximate and mineral content, reflects this dynamic nature. Essential oils, vitamins, and minerals found in rosemary contribute to its nutritional significance, with variations reflecting the intricacies of its growth environment [16, 49, 50]. Beyond its role in human nutrition, rosemary has demonstrated potential in poultry diets. In the context of metabolic disorders, studies evaluating the preventive effects of rosemary leaf extract standardized to carnosic acid have yielded encouraging results. The extract, when supplemented in high-fat diets, demonstrated reduced body and fat weight gain, lower fasting glycaemia, and decreased plasma cholesterol levels. These findings suggest a preventive potential against metabolic disorders, opening avenues for further examination in controlled trials [51]. Additionally, in the realm of dairy farming, dietary supplementation of rosemary extract influenced various aspects of dairy ewes’ performance. Milk production, daily quantitative production of protein, casein, lactose, and fats, as well as metabolic parameters, were significantly impacted by rosemary supplementation. The study suggests that Rosemary officinalis, with its “natural functional ingredients,” positively affects milk production and alleviates stress associated with lactation in animals, positioning it as a potential strategy to enhance organic production quality [52,53,54,55].

Furthermore, the association of rosemary distillation residues with linseed in cull ewes’ diets has shown promising effects on the fatty acid profile of goat meat. This combination led to improved nutritional quality by enhancing n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, satisfying a significant portion of the recommended daily dose for adults. Despite the challenges of low oxidation stability in polyunsaturated fatty acids, strategic dietary combinations, including rosemary, offer opportunities to mitigate lipid oxidation in meat, ensuring high-quality products for human consumption [56].

Rosemary stands out as a multifaceted herb, encompassing a rich array of essential oils, vitamins, and minerals that contribute to its nutritional significance and diverse applications. Essential oils, the aromatic essence of rosemary, play a pivotal role in defining its sensory profile and are integral to various health-related properties. The chemical composition of rosemary essential oils includes notable constituents such as 1, 8 cineole, α-pinene, camphor, linalool, and camphene, among others (see Table 1). These compounds collectively contribute to the distinctive fragrance and therapeutic attributes associated with rosemary [13, 16, 57,58,59].

Table 1 Comprehensive composition of rosemary: nutritional values, essential oil compounds, and minerals. Adopted from [4, 16, 49, 57]
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In addition to its aromatic profile, rosemary is a reservoir of essential vitamins, further enhancing its nutritional appeal. Vitamin content, as depicted in Table 1, reveals significant amounts of vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, and vitamin E [16, 60,61,62]. These vitamins play crucial roles in various physiological functions, including immune support, antioxidant defense, and metabolic processes [63,64,65,66]. Furthermore, rosemary boasts a diverse mineral profile (see Table 1), underscoring its role as a source of essential nutrients. Rich in minerals such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, and iron, rosemary contributes to meeting dietary mineral requirements [16, 49]. These minerals are vital for maintaining bone health, supporting enzymatic reactions, and ensuring overall physiological balance [67,68,69,70]. The nutritional composition of rosemary is not only confined to vitamins and minerals but extends to macronutrients and dietary fiber. As illustrated in Table 1, rosemary contains proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, each playing a distinct role in the overall nutritional contribution of this herb [16, 71,72,73]. Additionally, the presence of dietary fiber, crucial for digestive health, is evident in appreciable amounts [74, 75]. Considerable attention has been given to the potential health benefits associated with rosemary consumption [1]. Studies underscore the vitamin C content in rosemary leaves and its diverse extracts, emphasizing antioxidant properties. The identified chemical compounds, including those found in essential oils, contribute to the health-promoting characteristics attributed to rosemary [76,77,78]. The nutritional richness of rosemary extends beyond its culinary applications, making it a holistic herb with essential oils, vitamins, and minerals that collectively contribute to its multifaceted nature. As consumers increasingly recognize the importance of incorporating nutrient-dense ingredients into their diets, rosemary emerges as a flavorful and nutritionally significant choice with potential health-promoting benefits [79].

3 Applications of rosemary

Table 2 provides a comprehensive overview of the diverse applications of rosemary in various fields, highlighting the associated advantages.

Table 2 Applications of rosemary in various fields along with their advantages
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3.1 Traditional culinary applications

Rosemary plays a prominent role in traditional Mediterranean cuisine, where its leaves are used in herbal teas [115]. The bitter and astringent taste of fresh and dried leaves complements a variety of foods, such as fish, meat, poultry, soups, stews, sauces, dressings, preserves, and jams [16, 116]. Rosemary leaves, when burned, emit a distinct mustard smell, making them a popular choice for flavoring foods during barbecuing [117]. The utilization of rosemary extends beyond fresh consumption, as dried leaves offer an extended shelf life and easier storage and transport compared to fresh ones [16]. Rosemary exhibits a diverse range of culinary applications, underscoring its importance in flavor enhancement and food preservation as evidenced by various studies [118]. The acknowledged phytochemical potential of rosemary extracts, designated as a food additive by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) since 2008, further highlights its relevance within the food industry [2]. This reinforces the enduring presence of rosemary in culinary traditions, seamlessly connecting its historical roots to contemporary applications. The influence of precooking and addition of refined rosemary extract on lipid oxidation during storage of heat- sterilized meat gave products with higher stability during storage [119].

3.2 Modern culinary trends and innovative uses

Modern culinary trends and innovative applications of rosemary are underscored by its versatile utilization in food preservation and enhancement [120,121,122]. The recognition of essential oils, including rosemary, as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) opens avenues for direct contact with food, emphasizing their safety in culinary applications [16]. Moreover, rosemary extract has gained approval as a safe and effective antioxidant for food preservation in accordance with European Commission directives [22]. In contemporary culinary practices, rosemary essential oil and extract function as potent additives, providing antioxidant and antimicrobial benefits to diverse food products [123,124,125]. Numerous studies highlight the efficacy of rosemary in preserving meat, cheese, and poultry products, enhancing their shelf life and preventing lipid oxidation [126,127,128,129,130]. It is also important to mention that rosemary was used in active films for packaging, as explored by different scientific publications, further reflects its integration into innovative culinary practices [18, 121, 131,132,133]. Additionally, the exploration of rosemary’s potential in controlling biogenic amines in food packaging adds a layer of modernity to its applications [16]. The availability of various commercial products, such as Guardian® Rosemary Extract, StabilEnhance® OSR D 2.5, StabilEnhance® OSR 4, Herbalox® rosemary extract, and others, further facilitates its incorporation into contemporary culinary creations, showcasing the adaptability of rosemary in meeting the demands of modern gastronomy [16, 134, 135].

3.3 Historical uses in traditional medicine

In medicinal practices, rosemary found application in treating jaundice, combating the plague, alleviating colds, coughs, and other “cold” ailments [136,137,138]. Its multifaceted significance and adaptations during the process of local assimilation in Mexico underscore the dynamic evolution of rosemary in responding to diverse cultural and medicinal needs [136].

3.4 Scientific evidence supporting medicinal properties

Scientific research has provided compelling evidence supporting the diverse medicinal properties of rosemary (see Table 2).

3.4.1 Transdermal effects

Rosemary oil, rich in monoterpene compounds, has demonstrated the ability to stimulate cutaneous absorption. This property is crucial for transdermal applications, allowing the absorption of beneficial components through the skin [42, 89, 139, 140].

A methanol extract of the leaves of the plant Rosmarinus officinalis L. (Rosemary) was evaluated for its effects on tumor initiation and promotion in mouse skin [141]. The effectiveness of a natural extract derived from rosemary was provin to protect free radical-induced skin damage [142]. For real example, Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary) used in Jordanian folk medicine for wound management and treatment [143].

3.4.2 Cancer treatment

Scientific investigations have revealed the chemoprotective activity of rosmarinic acid, a key component of rosemary. Extracts from rosemary have shown promising results in reducing the occurrence, size, and weight of skin cancers. Carnosic acid, another compound found in rosemary, exhibits a defensive impact against melanoma [81, 82, 144,145,146].

In the quest for alternative treatments for neoplastic diseases, given the often-decreased effectiveness of standard therapy due to side effects, various natural products have shown promise in preventing and treating tumors. Rosemary, in particular, has been found to exert its effects by inhibiting carcinogen activation, enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities, mitigating tumor-promoting inflammation, reducing cell growth, promoting programmed cell death, and suppressing tumor angiogenesis and invasion (see Fig. 3) [147]. It has proving that the dried leaves of the plant Rosmarinus officinalis L. have high antioxidant activity and are commonly used as a spice and flavoring agent [148]. Moreover, anti-proliferative assays on six cancer cell lines showed that all R EOs have a higher anti-prolife rative ability against human pancreatic cancer cell line S W1990 and gastric epithelial cell line N CI-N87 [149]. Reallement, Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) has been reported to possess antitumor activities both in vitro and in animal studies [150].

Fig. 3
figure 3

Copyright 2020, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Rosemary’s impact on different cancer types (red arrows: inhibition/blockade; green arrows: promotion): a halting the activation of carcinogens, b boosting antioxidant enzyme activities, c minimizing tumor-promoting inflammation, d limiting cell growth, e encouraging programmed cell death, f supporting the decrease of tumor angiogenesis and invasion. Reproduced with permission [143].

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3.4.3 Antifungal and antibacterial activity

Rosemary oil has been identified for its antifungal properties, inhibiting the growth of Candida albicans, while both rosemary essential oil and extracts display significant antibacterial activity against a range of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, including highly resistant strains [83, 84, 105, 106]. Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. leaf extract Formation of green Ag-NPs was confirmed to have effective antibacterial and antifungal activities [151]. In the same application biofilms prepared by incorporating natamycin (NA) and NA + rosemary extract (RE) into wheat gluten (WG) and Me cellulose (MC), showed a high antimicrobial activities [152]. Also in developing various pharmacoligical targets, It’s reported that rosemary essential oil (ROEO) extracts show biological bioacties such as hepatoprotective, antifungal, insecticide, antioxidant and antibacterial [153].

3.4.4 Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects

Carnosic acid in rosemary inhibits the secretion of allergic inflammatory mediators, reducing conditions like atopic dermatitis. Rosemary extracts hinder the activation of allergic signaling pathways, leading to a reduction in the production of pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines [85, 86, 101, 102].

Essential oils are plant secondary metabolites possessing various pharmacol. properties, primarily anti-oxidative, antimicrobial or immunomodulative prooven by this study [154], the inhibition of inflammation du to Carnosol, a major component of Rosemary [155]. The use of Rosmarinus officinalis L., can boost immune system [156].

3.4.5 Wound healing

Rosemary oil has been shown to enhance the viability of tissues, reduce tissue necrosis, and accelerate wound healing in both non-diabetic and diabetic animals [91, 92]. It was reported the effeciancy of using of rosemary cream on a wound infected with Candida albicans, in rats [157]. Also, Rosmarinus officinalis was used in Jordanian folk medicine for wound management and treatment [143]. A great deal of pharmacological research showed that rosemary extract and its phenolic constituents, especially carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, and carnosol, could signifi cantly improve diabetes mellitus by regulating glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism, anti-inflammation, and anti-oxidation and avoiding many wound problems [158].

3.4.6 Antioxidant activity

The antioxidant effect of rosemary is due to the polyphenols present in the leaves (mainly rosmarinic acid, carnosol and carnosic acid), which accumulate in the fatty membranes of cells where the antioxidant effect is required [159]. In other research the activity of rosemary extract had an advantageous effect on the activity of this antioxidant activities [160]. The published data on the antioxidative potentials of common essential oils and their components that could be considered suitable for application to meat and meat products. The pos. effects of essential oils from oregano, rosemary, thyme, sage, basilica, ginger, and others [161]. They Contains compounds with potent antioxidant properties are gaining interest among food manufacturers and consumers alike [162].

3.4.7 Antilipidemic effects

Rosemary has demonstrated a role in reducing total cholesterol, fasting plasma glucose, LDL-C (low-density lipoprotein cholesterol), and triglycerides, while enhancing HDL-C (high-density lipoprotein cholesterol) [111, 112]. The inhibitory effect of dietary is about the α-tocopherol supplementation (100 and 500 mg α-tocopheryl acetate/kg diet) [163]. Same performance was observed using Rosmarinus officinalis, ethanol extract [164]. Rosmarinus officinalis L. extracts can be used in food, food supplements and cosmetic applications too [165].

3.4.8 Aromatherapy

Rosemary essential oils have been explored for their potential in aromatherapy, showing the ability to decrease nervous tension and stress levels, enhance mental activity, provide a sense of clarity, release fatigue, and support respiratory function [113, 114].

These findings collectively underscore the scientific basis for the traditional uses of rosemary in various medicinal applications, ranging from skin health and cancer treatment to anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects. The wealth of scientific evidence positions rosemary as a versatile and valuable herb in the realm of natural medicine. Rosmarinus officinalis L. is an ever green woody aromatic herb with a characteristic aroma, but rosemary oil content and composition were influenced by harvesting stage but fertilizer levels [166]. The use of Rosmarinus officinalis L. leaves during heating of meat and fish can minimize probable human carcinogens [167]. Rosemary and sage are composed of bioactive molecules in high demand by the food, pharmace utical, and cosmetic industries to produce value-added products [168].

3.5 Cosmetic uses

Rosemary has transcended its traditional role as a culinary herb to become a key player in the cosmetic industry. The utilization of rosemary in cosmetic formulations stems from its multifaceted bioactive compounds, offering benefits ranging from antioxidant and antimicrobial properties to potential applications in hair care [2, 99, 169, 170]. This part explores the diverse applications of rosemary in cosmetics, emphasizing its role in preserving formulations, improving skin conditions, and addressing specific dermatological concerns. Here below some steps for preparing the best and efficacy formulation:

3.5.1 A process for developing droplets for encapsulation

Encapsulation using emulsion and stabilisation technology is a process we operate in the industry. The technology used at MCT is a membrane microencapsulation process, also called “core–shell”. This technology produces emulsions composed of droplets of different sizes, which will produce microcapsules of the same size and have different characteristics according to their diameter. This particle size distribution will play an important role in the stability and efficiency of the microparticles present, such as spray-drying. This stability, but also the droplet size or the ratio between oil and water will be important factors in the emulsion/stabilisation encapsulation process [171,172,173].

3.5.2 Our technologies and know-how in the emulsification and stabilisation of microparticles

The particles during emulsion/stabilization have a size between 1 and 50 µm. The quality of the microencapsulation and the stability of the emulsions are closely linked and therefore influence the quality of the finished powder products, for example during spray-drying when these microcapsules are introduced into solid detergents. Our technologies are reliable and produce results. The stabilisation of emulsions can be achieved using conventional emulsifiers, which are often found in laboratories or in industry. We prefer not to use such products, but obtain this stabilisation through the wall of the microcapsule itself. This avoids the harmful effects of surfactants during encapsulation, such as extractions of the internal phase, i.e. of certain constituents of the fragrances. This process ensures that the polymers and active agents retain all their physical and chemical properties, with the main task of minimizing the deterioration of the microcapsules under the effect of the aggressions suffered in the environments where they are used, thereby creating optimal microcapsules for detergents and softeners [174,175,176].

3.5.3 The powers of fragrance concentration through emulsification/stabilisation

The final form of encapsulation through the emulsion/stabilisation method is preferably dispersion in water, known as “slurry”. The more this slurry contains active ingredients, the payload, the more attractive the microcapsules are for the customer, who will also benefit from a more attractive cost price. The strong point of our microcapsules is that they have a high payload, on average 40% and even up to 45%. Emulsion stabilisation is also possible with biodegradable polymers, but here the payload is rather lower due to the viscosity achieved during encapsulation. However, this type of microcapsules will continue to be developed as it responds to future legislation and the population’s environmental concerns [177,178,179].

3.6 Preserving cosmetic formulations

Cosmetic products are susceptible to deterioration caused by the oxidation of fatty components, catalyzed by microorganisms like bacteria and fungi [2, 180]. Rosemary, with its potent antimicrobial properties, has emerged as a natural preservative in cosmetic formulations [181, 182]. Extracts and essential oils of rosemary exhibit bactericidal and antifungal effects, combating a spectrum of microorganisms commonly found in cosmetics. Various studies have highlighted the efficacy of rosemary essential oil against specific strains of Candida, demonstrating its potential as a preservative [2, 183,184,185,186,187]. Consumers’ increasing preference for natural and safe products has driven the exploration of plant preservatives as alternatives to synthetic chemicals, such as Lavender oil, etc., which have raised concerns regarding their safety. Rosemary extracts, often combined with other botanical extracts, offer a safer alternative without compromising efficacy [181]. The rise of essential oils in cosmetics aligns with this trend, contributing not only as preservatives but also enhancing the overall sensory experience of the product [181, 188,189,190].

3.7 Advancements in formulation technology

The integration of rosemary into cosmetic formulations goes beyond its preservative role. Technological advancements aim to capitalize on rosemary’s properties for improving formulation stability and enhancing product attributes [191,192,193]. Studies have explored the use of rosemary extracts in stabilizing multiple emulsions, contributing to the overall quality of cosmetic products. Additionally, the microencapsulation of rosemary essential oils protects them from degradation, ensuring controlled release and prolonged efficacy [2, 186, 194,195,196].

Researchers are also investigating terpolymeric capsules containing rosemary essential oil, with a focus on leveraging its antifungal properties in cosmetic formulations [197, 198]. These advancements underscore the dynamic evolution of formulation technologies, continually unlocking new possibilities for incorporating rosemary into diverse cosmetic products.

3.8 Rosemary as a cosmeceutical product

The European Commission defines cosmetics as substances intended for superficial contact with the human body, excluding the treatment or diagnosis of diseases. In this context, rosemary is considered a cosmeceutical product, emphasizing its role in promoting skin health and appearance [2]. Rosemary extracts find applications in relieving minor muscle and joint pain, aligning with its traditional uses [199,200,201]. Analyzing the prevalence of rosemary-derived ingredients in cosmetic formulations reveals their widespread use [2]. The safety assessment indicates that rosemary leaf extract, rosemary leaf oil, and rosemary extract are employed in various cosmetic products, with applications ranging from skin conditioning to fragrance enhancement [153, 202,203,204]. Notably, rosemary leaf extract is used at concentrations up to 10% in body and hand products, showcasing its versatility [2, 5, 205].

3.9 Hair care and beyond

Rosemary’s influence extends to hair care, where it is believed to prevent hair loss. Historical formulations and contemporary practices demonstrate its enduring popularity for hair-related concerns [206,207,208,209]. Studies on androgenic alopecia, a common type of baldness, suggest that rosemary oil, when compared to minoxidil, can improve capillary count with less scalp irritation [208, 210,211,212]. Animal studies indicate that rosemary leaf extracts enhance hair regrowth by inhibiting 5α-reductase, a key factor in androgenic alopecia [213, 214].

Beyond skincare and hair care, rosemary derivatives have shown promise in addressing various dermatological conditions [5]. Antiviral activity against herpes simplex, fungicidal effects against dermatophytes, and improvements in skin hydration and elasticity for cellulite have been reported [2, 5, 42, 215]. Rosemary’s integration into the cosmetic industry represents a harmonious blend of tradition and modern science [2]. Its natural preservative properties, coupled with advancements in formulation technology, especially microemulsions, make it a valuable asset in cosmetic formulations [182, 216]. The dynamic landscape of cosmetic research continues to unveil new possibilities for harnessing the full potential of rosemary in promoting both the health and aesthetic aspects of personal care products.

3.10 Pharmaceutical uses

In the realm of pharmaceutical applications, rosemary has been gaining recognition for its diverse contributions to formulations and drug development [14, 217]. The integration of rosemary in pharmaceutical formulations serves not only as a testament to its historical uses but also as a strategic move toward harnessing its multifaceted bioactive compounds for therapeutic purposes [7, 218,219,220].

Rosemary’s presence in pharmaceutical formulations is grounded in its rich array of bioactive compounds, including but not limited to rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, and essential oils (previously discussed in Table 1) [203, 219, 221, 222]. These compounds endow rosemary with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties, making it a valuable addition to various pharmaceutical preparations. For instance, rosemary extracts have been explored as stabilizers in multiple emulsions, highlighting their potential role in enhancing the stability and shelf life of pharmaceutical formulations [223, 224] (see the different applications and properties in Table 2). Moreover, the microencapsulation of rosemary essential oils, as seen in studies on terpolymeric capsules, offers a promising avenue for protecting volatile compounds, ensuring controlled release, and potentially addressing specific pharmaceutical challenges [225, 226].

The historical application of rosemary in pharmaceutical formulations is mirrored in contemporary practices [16]. The emphasis on natural and plant-derived ingredients aligns with the broader shift toward sustainable and holistic healthcare solutions [227]. As consumers increasingly seek alternatives to synthetic compounds, rosemary’s integration into pharmaceutical formulations becomes not just a nod to tradition but a strategic choice for its therapeutic benefits [119, 140].

Beyond serving as a component in formulations, rosemary is actively being explored for its potential in drug development [7, 228]. The bioactive components of rosemary, such as rosmarinic acid and carnosic acid, have exhibited notable pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. These properties position rosemary as a compelling candidate for drug development, particularly in the context of addressing oxidative stress-related conditions, neurodegenerative diseases, and microbial infections [7, 15, 228,229,230,231].

The diverse pharmacological properties of rosemary, as outlined previously in Table 2, underscore its significance in formulating therapeutic agents. For instance, the antioxidative attributes of rosemary, attributed to compounds like rosmarinic acid and carnosic acid [80, 81], can be harnessed in drug formulations aimed at combating skin cancer. Additionally, the immunomodulatory effects demonstrated by rosemary extracts may inspire the development of drugs targeting allergic responses and inflammatory conditions [84, 95]. The analgesic properties of rosemary essential oils [107, 108] could contribute to novel pain management medications. Furthermore, the neuroprotective and cholinergic impacts of rosmarinic acid open avenues for drugs targeting the central nervous system [109, 110]. Rosemary’s antilipidemic effects suggest its potential role in drugs addressing lipid metabolism disorders [111, 112]. In exploring rosemary’s pharmaceutical potential, these applications provide a foundation for drug development, offering avenues for creating novel medications with diverse therapeutic benefits.

4 Extraction methods of bioactive compounds from rosemary

4.1 Hydrodistillation

Hydrodistillation (HD), being the oldest and simplest method, was discovered by Avicenna, via alembic. HD equipment constitutes a heating source, vessel (alembic), a vapor condenser device, and a decanter. Initially, the procured source is immersed directly into the water tub present inside the alembic vessel where this mixture is boiled followed by condensation and decantation. Rose was the first plant material used in this HD unit. It is considered unique for the extraction of hydrophobic materials with a high boiling point including wood and flowers. Essential oils are protected by the water without any chance of being overheated. Therefore, a primary advantage of hydrodistillation is its ability to isolate the oil from plant materials below 100 °C [232,233,234].

4.2 Steam distillation

Steam distillation is a separation process that consists of distilling water together with other volatile and non-volatile components. The steam from the boiling water carries the vapor of the volatiles to a condenser; both are cooled and return to the liquid or solid state, while the non-volatile residues remain behind in the boiling container. If, as is usually the case, the volatiles are not miscible with water, they will spontaneously form a distinct phase after condensation, allowing them to be separated by decantation or with a separatory funnel [235]. Steam distillation can be used when the boiling point of the substance to be extracted is higher than that of water, and the starting material cannot be heated to that temperature because of decomposition or other unwanted reactions. It may also be useful when the amount of the desired substance is small compared to that of the non-volatile residues. It is often used to separate volatile essential oils from plant material [236], for example, to extract limonene (boiling point 176 °C) from orange peels.

4.3 Soxhlet extraction

Soxhlet extraction is an exhaustive extraction technique widely applied to analytes that are sufficiently thermally stable. The extraction solvent is continuously cycled though the matrix, by boiling and condensation, with the sample being collected in the hot solvent (polare or apolare). The technique is not selective (apart from the choice of extraction solvent) and generally further cleanup and concentration are required. Using the automated systems that are now available, several samples can be extracted simultaneously, reducing the time required for extraction (typically 1–6 h). The traditional methods use a significant volume of organic solvent (50–200 ml for a 10-g sample), although automated systems enable smaller volumes of solvents to be used. The technique has also been combined with microwave-assisted extraction and ultrasonic extraction in an attempt to improve extraction efficiencies. Examples of the use of Soxhlet for trace contaminant analysis include the determination of polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) [237,238,239].

4.4 CO2 supercritical extraction

CO2 extraction can be used to extract oil esters from plant materials by utilizing different methods. One method involves mixing crushed raw material, water, and plant oil in a certain ratio to obtain a mixed feed liquid. Supercritical CO2 extraction is then carried out on the mixed feed liquid to obtain extract liquor, which is further subjected to oil–water separation using a high-speed centrifuge to obtain the plant extract oil [239]. Another method involves using carbon dioxide microbubbles to lyse algae cell walls, releasing triglyceride oils, combined with their transesterification using methanol in a single vessel [240]. Additionally, a method involves adding ethanol as an assisted solvent after grinding the material, and then expanding the treated material under the pressure of CO2 to form an expanded liquid. This method utilizes liquid CO2 to soak the material, increasing the oil extraction yield and reducing the extraction pressure [241].

4.5 Ultrasound-assisted extraction

USE is an extraction technique that does not use any heat. It is applied to the isolation of volatile compounds from natural products using organic solvents and a water bath with ultrasound assistance at room temperature. The first application of this technique for the study of honey volatile fraction goes back to 2003 [242]. The authors applied a USE methodology for Greek citrus honeys and flowers. The volatile fraction both of fresh flower and honey samples was extracted using an n-pentane/diethylether (1:2) mixture in an ultrasound water bath apparatus, maintained at 25 °C for 10 min; the extracts were then analyzed directly by GC-FID and GC–MS using an apolar capillary column operating at programmed temperature with helium as carrier gas. The analysis of the flowers allowed the identification of 17 volatile compounds, mainly monoterpenes; among these, linalool was predominant in all citrus species, except for lemon, with eucalyptol the main compound [243].

4.6 Micro wave extraction

Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is a process of using microwave energy to heat solvents in contact with a sample in order to partition analytes from the sample matrix into the solvent. The ability to rapidly heat the sample solvent mixture is inherent to MAE and the main advantage of this technique [244].

The extraction of bioactive compounds from rosemary is a pivotal aspect of scientific exploration, driven by the pursuit of natural solutions with diverse applications [1, 15, 24]. Rosemary, a well-known aromatic plant cultivated along the Mediterranean, holds a wealth of bioactive compounds, including carnosol, carnosic acid, and rosmarinic acid [16]. Traditional methods, such as maceration, decoction, and infusion, have long been employed for rosemary extraction, but newer, environmentally friendly techniques like supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) have gained prominence [245, 246]. Green extraction methods, including those using supercritical fluids, offer advantages over conventional approaches by reducing environmental impact and enhancing extraction efficiency [247,248,249]. These methods aim to harness the full potential of rosemary’s bioactive compounds, unlocking opportunities for applications in various industries, including food preservation and pharmaceuticals. The quest for optimal extraction techniques aligns with the broader green biorefinery concept, emphasizing sustainability and resource efficiency [2, 250].

Figure 4 offers a snapshot of the patent landscape surrounding rosemary extract applications. This compilation synthesizes insights from top patent documents, illuminating the growing interest in leveraging rosemary extracts across diverse industries [251].

Fig. 4
figure 4

Copyright 2023, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Compilation of information extracted from the top three patent documents detailing the utilization of rosemary extract for different applications. Reproduced with permission [251].

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4.7 Bioactive compounds

Rosemary stands out not only for its aromatic allure and culinary significance but also for the myriad of bioactive compounds that underpin its therapeutic and functional attributes [252, 253]. This botanical treasure trove is replete with an assortment of phytochemicals, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, diterpenes, and essential oils [26]. A key player among these bioactive components is rosmarinic acid, a potent polyphenolic compound acclaimed for its robust antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [254, 255]. Complementing this, carnosic acid and carnosol, two closely related diterpenes, take the spotlight with their well-known antimicrobial and neuroprotective effects [256]. The addition of flavonoids, such as diosmetin, hesperidin, and luteolin, not only enhances the visual vibrancy of rosemary but also contributes antioxidant and anti-cancer properties [257, 258]. Essential oils extracted from rosemary, primarily comprising cineole, camphor, and pinene, not only lend the characteristic aroma but also harbor antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory attributes [15, 259]. Triterpenes like ursolic acid and oleanolic acid further elevate rosemary’s profile with their anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activities. The synergy among these bioactive compounds forms the foundation of rosemary’s multifaceted health benefits [260, 261]. Research suggests potential applications in addressing oxidative stress-related conditions, neurodegenerative diseases, and microbial infections [262, 263]. Moreover, the antioxidant prowess of these compounds positions rosemary as a promising candidate for natural preservatives in the food industry and skincare formulations in cosmetics [2, 264]. Delving into the realm of extraction techniques, it becomes apparent that preserving and efficiently extracting these valuable compounds is pivotal for unlocking the full therapeutic potential of rosemary. Whether considering the focused overview of key compounds or a more detailed exploration of additional bioactive components, understanding the diverse array of bioactive compounds in rosemary sets the stage for harnessing its phytochemical richness effectively [24].

4.8 Conventional extraction methods

Conventional extraction methods (see Table 3) play a foundational role in obtaining bioactive compounds from rosemary. These time-tested approaches, known for their simplicity and cost-effectiveness, require careful consideration of their specific advantages and limitations [265].

Table 3 Time durations for procedures employed in traditional extraction methods. Adopted from [265]
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Maceration, a rapid and economical method, involves immersing the plant material in a solvent to facilitate compound dissolution. While minimizing solvent usage, prolonged maceration may compromise efficiency. Decoction, known for its simplicity, involves boiling plant material to extract compounds, yet its affordability comes with the drawback of potential degradation of heat-sensitive constituents. Percolation, ensuring comprehensive extraction in shorter durations, is favored for its efficiency, but it demands significant solvent and energy consumption. Infusion, recognized for efficacy and multiple extractions, relies on water as a solvent, posing constraints on extracting certain bioactive compounds in a shorter timeframe [265,266,267,268,269,270]. These classical extraction methods remain foundational, highlighting the continued relevance of traditional approaches in obtaining essential oils and bioactive compounds from rosemary [1, 24, 109]. However, the selection of a particular method should be tailored to the specific compounds of interest and the intended applications, balancing factors like time, cost, and the stability of targeted compounds. This integration of tradition and efficacy underscores the importance of adapting classical extraction methods to contemporary needs in the pursuit of bioactive compounds from rosemary [271,272,273].

4.9 Recent approaches in extraction

Recent approaches in the extraction of bioactive compounds from rosemary have seen a shift towards more sustainable and efficient methods [248]. Traditional extraction methods, such as maceration, decoction, infusion, ordinary reflux, and Soxhlet extraction, have been widely used, each with its specific time requirements [267]. However, these conventional methods often involve extended periods and the use of organic solvents, raising concerns about efficiency and environmental impact [274]. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) has emerged as a promising alternative, addressing the limitations of conventional methods. SFE utilizes CO2 as an extraction agent, operating at low temperatures without oxygen, ensuring the preservation of bioactive compounds. This technique offers advantages in terms of reduced energy requirements, selectivity, and faster extraction processes [275,276,277]. Moreover, SFE has been recognized for its applicability to various matrices, including rosemary, and has been extensively studied for its potential in obtaining bioactive compounds with diverse functionalities, such as antioxidants, antitumor agents, antibacterial agents, and more [278, 279]. Enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) is another recent approach showing promise in the extraction of bioactive compounds from rosemary. This method involves the use of enzymes to catalyze hydrolytic reactions, breaking down cell wall polymers and enhancing the release of phenolic compounds. EAE has been explored as a greener alternative to conventional methods, offering improved extraction rates, selectivity, and yields [280,281,282]. Recent studies have investigated the optimization of conditions for enzyme-assisted extraction from rosemary leaves, revealing enhanced extraction of specific bioactive compounds like rosmarinic acid [283]. Furthermore, the exploration of green solvents, including choline chloride-based deep eutectic solvents, has gained attention in efficiently extracting phenolics from rosemary leaves. These solvents act as protective agents for the extracted phytochemicals, contributing to the overall bioactivity of the extracts [44, 284]. Vegetable oils have also been reconsidered as alternative solvents, providing non-toxic, non-volatile, and non-irritating options for the extraction of bioactive compounds from rosemary. This aligns with the principles of green extraction, emphasizing sustainability and safety [285,286,287].

Table 4 outlines various extraction methodologies employed for obtaining phytochemicals from rosemary. Notably, the division into conventional and contemporary methods offers a comprehensive overview of the evolving landscape in extraction techniques. Conventional methods, such as maceration and decoction, exhibit economic advantages but are tempered by extended extraction durations and limitations in extracting specific compounds [1, 109, 288]. Conversely, contemporary approaches, including microwave-assisted and ultrasound-assisted extractions, showcase advancements in efficiency and scalability [289,290,291,292]. However, challenges persist, such as solvent compatibility issues and the need for specialized equipment [272, 293]. Each method’s unique advantages and disadvantages underscore the nuanced decision-making process in selecting an appropriate extraction technique. Environmental impact, cost considerations, and the desired phytochemical profile become pivotal factors in this decision. This compilation serves as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners seeking to optimize extraction protocols for rosemary. By considering the trade-offs inherent in each method, informed decisions can be made to achieve targeted phytochemical yields while addressing practical constraints. The references provided further facilitate an in-depth exploration of each extraction method and its applicability to specific research objectives.

Table 4 Different extraction methods of rosemary with advantages and disadvantages
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5 Sustainability and agriculture

Rosemary originated in the Mediterranean, spreading globally, even becoming invasive in certain regions. Thriving in dry, warm conditions, it adapts to various soil types. Cultivation spans ornamental and aromatic applications worldwide. Diverse growth conditions include European regions, lower mountain forests, dry valleys in Bolivia, and rocky hills in Bermuda. With three subspecies identified, its adaptability is showcased in varying climates. Propagation via cuttings and seeds, rosemary endures drought once established. Ideal pH ranges from 6 to 7.5, intolerant of heavy clay and poor drainage. Suited for temperate and sub-tropical zones, it withstands seaside conditions. However, temperatures below − 3 °C hinder growth. Rosemary’s intentional spread for cultivation, aided by regenerative capabilities, makes it valued globally for ornamental and medicinal purposes [4, 5, 15, 218].

Rosemary, the aromatic herb celebrated for its culinary and medicinal attributes, is not merely a botanical entity but a cultivation venture deeply intertwined with sustainability considerations. The nuanced domain of sustainable rosemary cultivation is dissected, laying bare the multifaceted aspects of agricultural practices and their profound impact on the nutritional and bioactive essence of this venerable herb [15, 219, 313, 314].

5.1 Consideration of sustainable agricultural practices

Sustainable cultivation of rosemary transcends the conventional boundaries of farming, embodying a holistic approach that harmonizes environmental stewardship, social responsibility, and economic viability. The cultivation journey begins with the conscientious selection of cultivation methods that minimize environmental impact while maximizing resource efficiency [315,316,317,318]. One pivotal facet of sustainable agriculture in rosemary cultivation is the judicious use of water resources. Water scarcity being a global concern, sustainable practices emphasize precision irrigation techniques, rainwater harvesting, and soil moisture management to ensure optimal growth without undue stress on water reservoirs [319,320,321]. Additionally, the integration of organic farming practices, eschewing synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, aligns with sustainability goals by preserving soil health and mitigating the potential adverse effects on ecosystems [322,323,324]. Agroforestry emerges as a sustainable cultivation paradigm that finds resonance in rosemary farming [325, 326]. The strategic integration of rosemary with compatible tree species fosters biodiversity, curtails soil erosion, and provides a resilient ecosystem for the herb to thrive. This symbiotic relationship exemplifies the intricate the relation between agriculture and ecology, embodying the essence of sustainability in cultivation practices [322, 327,328,329]. Furthermore, sustainable agriculture in rosemary cultivation involves community-centric approaches. Engaging local communities, respecting indigenous knowledge, and ensuring fair labor practices contribute to the social sustainability tapestry. By fostering a sense of community ownership and equitable distribution of benefits, sustainable rosemary cultivation transcends the confines of fields to become a catalyst for societal well-being [313, 330,331,332,333].

5.2 Impact of cultivation conditions on nutritional and bioactive content

The cultivation conditions wield a profound influence on the nutritional and bioactive composition of rosemary, adding an intriguing layer to the sustainable cultivation narrative [1, 334, 335]. Soil health, climatic nuances, and cultivation practices intricately shape the phytochemical profile of rosemary, accentuating its role as a source of bioactive compounds. Sustainable cultivation prioritizes soil fertility through organic amendments, cover cropping, and crop rotation [336,337,338]. A nutrient-rich soil not only augments the growth of rosemary but significantly influences the synthesis of bioactive compounds such as rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, and essential oils [339,340,341]. Climatic factors, including temperature, sunlight, and humidity, act as environmental factors, sculpting the chemical composition of rosemary. The interplay of these factors manifests in the nuanced variations of bioactive compounds, each climatic nuance contributing to the herb’s unique fingerprint [342,343,344]. In essence, sustainable rosemary cultivation becomes a tapestry where environmental consciousness weaves together with agricultural acumen, resulting in not just a thriving herb but a reservoir of nutritionally potent and bioactively rich attributes. The sustainable cultivation of rosemary shows that careful farming practices not only protect the environment but also shape the herb’s bioactive characteristics.

The composition of 48 essential oil samples, obtained by steam distil lation of rosemary (Rosmarinus oftiicinalis L.) originated from six different locations of southern Turkey (Izmir, Aydin, Antalya, Mersin, Adana and Hatay) has been analyzed by capillary GC/MS in combination with retention indexes. The essential oil yield ranged from 0.35 to 2.08%. Wide variation was observed among the lines regarding their essential oil yield [345]. It was studied the exploration of different light environment Rosmarinus officinalis callus growth which had a promoting effect [346]. The cultivation of spices and herbs in parts of the world charact erized by warm climate and high humidity provides excellent conditions for the development of microorganisms, including the undesirable ones. Plus the microbiological quality of spices and herbs available on the Polish market [347].

6 Future of rosemary

The horizon of extracting bioactive compounds from natural sources, exemplified by the multifaceted rosemary, is poised for transformative advancements. Future trajectories in extraction methodologies and bioactive compound utilization reveal promising avenues for scientific innovation and industrial applications [26, 348, 349].

6.1 Innovative extraction techniques

A shift away from conventional methodologies towards sustainable and efficient extraction techniques is imminent. Green extraction methods, including supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), represent the vanguard of this paradigm shift. Supercritical fluids, notably carbon dioxide (CO2), stand out for their eco-friendly attributes, operating at low temperatures and eliminating the need for hazardous solvents. This aligns with the global impetus towards sustainability, where extraction processes embody both environmental stewardship and high-quality bioactive compound yields [26, 250, 274, 277].

6.2 Integration of advanced technologies

The combination of extraction processes with cutting-edge technologies is set to redefine the landscape. Techniques such as ultrasound- and microwave-assisted extractions, already promising, will undergo further refinements. This integration aims to enhance extraction efficiency and minimize processing times, critical factors for large-scale industrial applications. Moreover, coupling extraction processes with advanced separation and analytical technologies, like high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS), enables accurate and comprehensive profiling of bioactive compounds [247, 350, 351].

6.3 Customized extraction protocols

The future envisions a move towards customization, tailoring protocols to the unique bioactive profile of each natural source. Advanced analytics and data-driven approaches empower researchers to understand the specific composition of bioactive compounds in plants like rosemary. This knowledge facilitates precision extraction, ensuring the isolation of target compounds with higher efficacy and purity [352,353,354].

6.4 Commercial viability and scale-up challenges

As scientific advancements surge forward, the real-world application hinges on commercial viability. Future research must address challenges associated with scaling-up novel extraction techniques to meet industrial demands. Factors such as cost-effectiveness, energy efficiency, and integration into existing production processes are crucial for widespread adoption [355]. The future of extracting bioactive compounds, exemplified by rosemary, promises a sustainable, efficient, and tailored approach. The dynamic journey ahead, shaped by collaboration between academia and industry, will redefine the frontiers of extraction science, impacting pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, and beyond. Nature-inspired wisdom converging with technological prowess sets the stage for a transformative era in extraction science.

7 Conclusion

This comprehensive review illuminates the versatile spectrum of applications and multifaceted significance of Rosmarinus officinalis Linn.—commonly known as rosemary. Expounding on its rich culinary history, the herb emerges as a staple in traditional Mediterranean cuisine, providing not only a distinctive flavor but also extending its influence to modern gastronomy. Moreover, its historical roots intertwine with diverse cultures, reflecting its symbolic and medicinal roles throughout centuries. Scientific exploration reinforces the traditional applications, establishing rosemary as a reservoir of bioactive compounds with extensive medicinal potential. From transdermal effects to anti-cancer properties, anti-inflammatory, and beyond, rosemary’s therapeutic versatility is underscored by rigorous scientific evidence. The burgeoning interest in its cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and culinary applications marks a dynamic integration of tradition and innovation, unlocking new possibilities for holistic well-being. Sustainability takes center stage as the review delves into the intricate relationship between rosemary cultivation, environmental consciousness, and socio-economic considerations. Embracing sustainable agricultural practices becomes paramount, not only for environmental stewardship but also for shaping the nutritional and bioactive content of rosemary.

Looking forward, the horizon of rosemary’s bioactive compound extraction presents exciting prospects. Innovative methodologies, advanced technologies, and customized extraction protocols promise a transformative era in extraction science. The convergence of nature-inspired wisdom and technological prowess sets the stage for a sustainable, efficient, and tailored approach in extracting bioactive compounds, with implications reaching far beyond traditional applications into pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. This review encapsulates the past, present, and future of rosemary, celebrating its enduring significance and paving the way for continued scientific exploration and application.