1 Introduction

Urbanization has increased significantly in recent times due to varying reasons. This makes the urban environment crucial in terms of its environmental impacts and the demand for ecosystem services from urban areas [1,2,3]. The benefits that are derived from urban ecosystems are called ecosystem services [3, 4]. Urban ecosystem services can be categorized as regulating, provisioning, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services. Regulating ecosystem service is a benefit of ecosystems that moderate natural phenomena; such as climate regulation, erosion control, flood control, etc. Provisioning ecosystem services is a benefit that can be directly extracted from ecosystems; such as food, timber, fuel wood, etc. Supporting ecosystem service is a type of service that is important to sustain natural processes; such as nutrient recycling, photosynthesis, etc. Cultural ecosystem service is a nonmaterial benefit that is necessary for cultural, intellectual and social development [5].

Urban forests are being increasingly recognized as crucial producers of ecosystem services in cities, particularly in mitigating the severe consequences of climate change and improving citizens’ quality of life [6,7,8]. Effective management of urban forests and ecosystem services in urban areas is beneficial from social, ecological, and economic perspectives [9].

Urban forests serve as providers of ecosystem services, such as psychological well-being, aesthetic value, habitats for biodiversity, climate amelioration, educational opportunities, air pollution mitigation, and other ecosystem services. They also help reduce wind speed and traffic noise, while serving as a source of food, fodder, fuel, wood, and timber for the community [1, 10,11,12,13]. Moreover, old woodlands with large trees facilitate stress recovery, evoke memories, and promote confidence. Parks and woodlands also play a vital role in social gatherings for elderly individuals, youth, ethnic minorities with diverse cultural backgrounds, and disabled citizens [1, 7, 14]. Additionally, they offer health benefits, which are especially significant for long-term preventative health and immediate relief during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic [15].

Studies have shown that people have varying perceptions of urban forest ecosystem services [1, 16]. These differing perceptions can lead to challenges in managing green spaces in urban areas, and ignoring them may result in social and political conflicts. Therefore, it is recommended to incorporate social research on ecosystem services into political planning, enhancing public participation and knowledge exchange between the general public and experts, ultimately fostering civic empowerment and confidence in governance [16]. Local evaluations of residents’ perceptions regarding the benefits of urban forests are essential to avoid generalizations, as beliefs about these benefits can vary among cities and inhabitants. It is crucial to regularly update information on people’s beliefs, supported by studies that demonstrate the cost-effectiveness of urban forests from a social standpoint [1]. Therefore, a thorough understanding of how people perceive, obtain, and utilize ecosystem services can impact the degree to which management and policy recommendations are followed [17].

Despite the growing recognition of urban forests, little is known about how people perceive urban forests and their associated ecosystem services [1, 8, 18]. This knowledge gap applies to various urban settings in Ethiopia [12, 13]. Therefore, our research aimed to examine the perception of local communities regarding the ecosystem services provided by urban forests in Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia.

2 Research methods

2.1 Description of the study area

Mekelle, the capital of the Tigray region in northern Ethiopia, is situated around 783 km to the north of Addis Ababa, the capital of the country. Mekelle is positioned at an elevation of around 2254 m above sea level with geographical coordinates of between 13.45 and 13.55° N latitude and 39.45° E to 39.55° E longitude. Specifically, it falls within the boundaries of Enderta wereda in the southeastern zone of the Tigray region (Fig. 1) [19]. The city spans an area of approximately 74 square kilometers. It is divided into seven administrative sub-cities: Kedamay Weyane, Semien, Hadinet, Adihaki, Aider, Quiha, and Hawelti. Mekelle experiences a semi-arid climate [20] characterized by maximum average temperatures of 24.44–25.76 °C and average minimum temperatures of 10.74–11.88 °C. The hottest month is June, while the coldest month is December. The city receives an average annual rainfall of 463.8–765.2 mm. Within Mekelle, there are forest areas comprising predominantly indigenous highland tree species which may have contributed to enhanced access to ecosystem services for the local community [19].

Fig. 1
figure 1

Locational map of the study area

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2.2 Sampling techniques

In this study, two sub-cities from Mekelle, namely Kedamay Weyane and Semien, were selected from the seven sub cities in Mekelle. The sample size was determined using the household sizes of 11,405 and 5917 for Kedamay Weyane and Semien sub-cities, respectively.

For determining the sample size, the following formula of scholars [21, 22], was utilized:

$$n=\frac{{z}^{2}pq}{{d}^{2}}$$

where n = sample size; z = level of confidence; p = the proportion in the target population estimate to have a particular characteristic, q = statistical significance, i.e. 1 − p; d = estimated level of significance.

Assuming a target population estimate of 50% (p = 0.5), a confidence level of 95% with a z value of 1.96, and a desired level of significance of 0.07 (d = 0.07), the calculated sample size was 196. This sample size was distributed proportionately, with 67 households selected from Kedamay Weyane and 129 households selected from Semien sub-cities. Random sampling was then used to select the households to be interviewed from a long list of households.

Additionally, key informants (KI) from various relevant institutions were included in the study to deepen the understanding of residents’ perception of ecosystem services of urban forests by gathering qualitative data. Five individuals were selected from Mekelle University (one department head and four experts), urban agriculture (one office coordinator and four experts), environmental protection (one office coordinator and four experts), and the city’s urban greenery and beautification office (one office coordinator and four experts).

2.3 Data collection

Data was collected through questionnaires and interview guidelines administered to randomly selected household heads and key informants. The questionnaire was developed in a way to capture the perception of respondents based on the four categories of ecosystem services; which are provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services, and supporting services as defined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [5]. To ensure comprehensive data collection, the specific ecosystem services within each category were identified and included in the questionnaire. Five ecosystem services for regulating (run-off minimization, sediment load minimization, temperature regulation, flood protection, and shading), seven ecosystem services for provisioning (fuel wood, charcoal, timber, bee forage, animal feed, fruits, and income generation), three ecosystem services for supporting (habitat for biodiversity, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling), and two ecosystem services for cultural (recreation and education) ecosystem service were identified based on relevant literature and inputs gathered during the validation of the questionnaire. Based on these, respondents were asked how they value each ecosystem service of urban forests on a scale of five (very low, low, medium, high, and very high).

2.4 Data analysis

Once the relevant data was collected, it was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 26. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed to analyze the collected data. Descriptive statistics, like mean and standard deviation, were used to summarize and present the characteristics, patterns, and frequencies of the variables in the dataset. A Likert scale (very low, low, medium, high, and very high) was used to determine respondents’ perception levels regarding the ecosystem services provided by urban forests. For each ecosystem service, responses from each category of ecosystem services were averaged to create an additional single variable representing each category of services. For instance, in addition to the respondents’ perceptions of the five regulating ecosystem services gathered from the survey, we created a variable by averaging these five perceptions into a single aggregate variable. Inferential statistical methods were then applied to explore the relationships and associations between sociodemographic factors and the perception of ecosystem service variables. In order to investigate the relationship between the sociodemographic factors of the respondents and their attitudes towards ecosystem services of urban forests, the Spearman rank correlation test was applied. This statistical test allowed us to assess whether changes in sociodemographic factors influence the perception of giving a very low, low, medium, high, or very high value to ecosystem services. Furthermore, ordinal regression analysis was applied to identify factors affecting the perception of residents on ecosystem services of urban forests.

3 Results

3.1 Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents

The majority of the participants (56.9%) were male, with a mean average age of 38 ± 10. In terms of educational status, most of them (29.8%) completed high school. The mean average income of the respondents was found to be 25,020.44 ± 5552.10 Ethiopian Birr (ETB). Most of the respondents affirmed that they are employed (43.6%) followed by business owners (37.2%) (Table 1).

Table 1 Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents
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3.2 Perception on regulating ecosystem services

The research revealed that the residents perceived that urban forests provide regulating ecosystem services highly. In particular, they perceived urban forests as important for run-off minimization, sediment load minimization, temperature regulation, and flood protection, ranking them as high. However, the importance of urban forests for shading was perceived as medium (Table 2).

Table 2 Perception of respondents on ecosystem services of urban forests
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The findings also indicated relationships between the respondents’ sociodemographic characteristics and their value given to the regulating ecosystem services. The level of education showed a positive relationship with the value attributed to temperature regulation, run-off minimization, shading, flood protection, and sediment load minimization. On the other hand, gender showed a negative relationship with the value given to run-off minimization, flood protection, and temperature regulation. Additionally, income exhibited a significant positive relationship with the value assigned to temperature regulation, shading, run-off minimization, and flood protection. Furthermore, occupation showed a significant positive relationship only with the value given to the ecosystem service of shading, indicating daily laborers favor shading more than business owners. Age, in contrast, did not show any correlation with the variables related to the value given to regulating ecosystem services (Table 3).

Table 3 Relationship of sociodemographic factors with perception on ecosystem services of urban forests
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3.3 Perception on provisioning ecosystem services

The importance of urban forests in providing provisioning ecosystem services was rated as medium by the respondents. Specifically, bee forage provision was considered high, while fruit provision was regarded as low. The other provisioning ecosystem services (fuel wood, charcoal, timber, animal feed, and income generation) provided by urban forests were perceived to be medium (Table 2). The research findings also identified significant but weak associations between specific socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents and their valuation of provisioning ecosystem services. The level of education showed a negative association with fuel wood provision and charcoal provision, by which those who have higher educational status give lower value to the mentioned ecosystem services. Similarly, household income exhibited a negative association with fuel wood provision and charcoal provision. Gender was positively correlated with the importance of urban forests in improving income for residents, indicating that female respondents appreciated the role of urban forests in income generation than male respondents did. Conversely, age showed a negative correlation with the same variable. However, occupation/employment of the respondents did not show any association with any of the identified variables related to provisioning ecosystem services.

3.4 Perception on supporting ecosystem services

Similar to provisioning ecosystem services, respondents perceived the role of urban forests in providing supporting ecosystem services, such as habitat for biodiversity and photosynthesis, as medium. However, the level of importance attributed to nutrient recycling was considered low (Table 2). Regarding the relationship between the value given to supporting ecosystem services and the respondents’ socioeconomic characteristics, it was observed that the level of education and income exhibited positive associations with all three identified ecosystem services. There was a positive relationship between the level of education and the value assigned to nutrient recycling, habitat for biodiversity, and photosynthesis services provided by urban forests. Similarly, household income showed a positive relationship with the value assigned to nutrient recycling, habitat for biodiversity, and photosynthesis services. Gender and age did not show any significant correlation with the identified supporting ecosystem services.

3.5 Perception on cultural ecosystem services

The respondents perceived that recreational and educational ecosystem services obtained from urban forests were moderate. In general, urban forests in Mekelle were considered to play a moderate role in providing cultural ecosystem services, with an average score of 3.32 (Table 2). The study showed that the education level, income, and occupation of the participants were closely linked to the recreational and educational services offered by urban forests. The value given to recreational services was positively correlated with the level of education, income, and occupation/employment. Similarly, the value assigned to educational services of the forest showed a positive correlation with the level of education, income, and occupation/employment. However, gender and age did not show any significant correlation with the identified cultural ecosystem services.

3.6 Overall perception

The respondents valued the ecosystem regulation services provided by urban forests as high. Overall, the residents of Meklle perceived the role of urban forests in providing various types of ecosystem services as medium, with a mean value of 3.26. Moreover, the mean value assigned to regulating ecosystem services obtained from urban forests showed positive correlations with the level of education, income, and gender. Regarding the provisioning ecosystem services, respondents perceived their importance as medium. However, no significant associations were found between any of the socioeconomic characteristics and the value given to the mean of the identified provisioning ecosystem services. Similar to the provisioning ecosystem services, supporting ecosystem services related to habitat for biodiversity, photosynthesis, and nutrient recycling were perceived as medium. The overall mean of the supporting ecosystem services showed positive correlations with the level of education and income of respondents.

Overall, the respondents perceived the role of urban forests in providing various types of ecosystem services as medium. The analysis indicated a positive correlation between the overall mean of cultural ecosystem services and the respondents’ level of education, income, and occupation/employment. However, no significant relationships were found with gender and age.

Additionally, when applying the Ordinal regression analysis, age, and the educational status of the respondents were found to influence their perception of ecosystem services significantly. Higher educational attainment and older age exhibited a very high value placed on the ecosystem services urban forests provide. Gender, and occupation of respondents were not found as factors to the value given to ecosystem services of urban forests (Table 4).

Table 4 Factors affecting attitude towards ecosystem services of urban forests
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4 Discussion

4.1 Perception on regulating ecosystem services

The findings of the study revealed that respondents in the study area hold a positive perception of the regulating ecosystem services provided by urban forests, viewing them as highly beneficial. The recognition of services suggests that the local population values the health and environmental benefits that urban forests offer. This awareness can translate into stronger community support for urban forestry initiatives, making it easier to engage residents in conservation efforts and tree-planting activities, ultimately leading to more sustainable urban forest management. This aligns with research conducted in the Czech Republic, which highlighted that regulating services are highly valued [23]. Similarly, a study in Oslo indicated that residents believe carbon sequestration and storage services provided by urban forests have increased over the past 50 years [24].

Additional research from Italy [25], France, and Portugal [26] further supports the positive attitude of residents towards the role of urban forests in climate regulation. Similarly, a study carried out in Kuala Lumpur reported that visitors had a positive opinion of the city’s regulating ecosystem services, with high scores averaging at 4.74 [27], which is consistent with our findings, although we observed a slightly lower mean value of 3.78. In Benin metropolis, Southern Nigeria, a majority of the locals emphasized the value of urban trees in providing regulatory services, including climate modification, landscape improvement, erosion and flood reduction, and shade and cooling for urban areas [28]. Nevertheless, residents in urban areas of France and Portugal expressed a shared concern regarding the lack of attention given to two microclimatic functions of green spaces, namely noise reduction and air temperature regulation. This disparity in perception may be attributed to variations in attitudes across different community groups [26]. Conversely, a study conducted in China showed that residents perceived regulating ecosystem services as being of low importance [29].

The association between respondents’ education and income influencing their perception of ecosystem services suggests a need to raise awareness and improve the economic status of the community to enhance the management of urban forests. Similarly, a study conducted in Chile found that educated individuals preferred regulating ecosystem services over the less-educated counterparts [30]. The lower perception of regulating ecosystem services among women compared to men indicates a need to focus on changing women’s attitudes toward these services. The absence of a correlation between age and the perceived value of ecosystem services indicates that the appreciation for these services remains consistent across different age groups. In contrast to the findings the current study, research conducted in Brisbane, Australia, suggests that older individuals place a higher value on regulating ecosystem services compared to younger individuals [31].

Generally, our study highlights the positive perception of Mekelle residents towards the regulating ecosystem services provided by urban forests. However, these perceptions are influenced by sociodemographic factors, such as education, income, gender, and age. Understanding these variations in perception can contribute to the development of targeted strategies to enhance the recognition and appreciation of urban forest ecosystem services in different population groups.

4.2 Perception on provisioning ecosystem services

The moderate appreciation of provisioning ecosystem services by the community, as indicated by the research findings, highlights the essential role that urban forests play in supporting local livelihoods and economic activities. The observation of income-generating activities, such as the collection of wood by women and beekeeping, underscores the direct benefits that residents derive from these natural resources. These activities not only provide supplementary income but also foster a deeper connection between the community and their urban forests.

Furthermore, the investments in recreational facilities like the Mar Amusement Park, EndaRaesi Lounge, and Hilltop Hotel within the study area demonstrate the potential of urban forests to contribute to the local economy through tourism and leisure industries. These facilities attract visitors and generate revenue, which can be reinvested in the maintenance and enhancement of urban green spaces. In China, residents highly value the food provisioning services provided by urban forests [29]. The findings of the study align with those from other regions, indicating that provisioning services are highly valued. For instance, similar observations were made in Kenya, Sweden’s Östergötland County, and Catalonia, Spain, where provisioning ecosystem services was the most appreciated [32,33,34]. In Benin, a favorable opinion of urban trees was also prevalent among the majority of the population [28]. These studies highlight the importance of urban forests in providing tangible benefits that support livelihoods and economic activities. Conversely, in France, Portugal, Oslo, Norway, and Hyderabad, India, residents showed lower appreciation for provisioning ecosystem services from urban forests [24, 26, 35]. This could be because the provisioning services they derive are not primarily from urban forests or because their interests lie elsewhere.

The relationship between demographic variables and the perceived value of provisioning services from urban forests provides important insights into community attitudes and priorities. The findings reveal that individuals with higher incomes and higher education levels tend to assign less value (very low) to the benefits of urban forests in charcoal and fuelwood provisioning. This trend can be explained by the decreased reliance on traditional fuel sources among more affluent and educated individuals. These groups are likely to have greater access to alternative energy sources, such as electricity or gas, reducing their dependence on urban forests for fuel. Moreover, higher income and education levels often correlate with increased environmental awareness and concern for sustainability. These individuals might prioritize other ecosystem services provided by urban forests, such as regulating and cultural services, over provisioning services. This shift in value perception underscores the need for urban forest management strategies to address the diverse needs and priorities of different demographic groups.

In contrast, female and younger respondents in our study placed a higher value on the role of urban forests in contributing to the community’s income. This finding highlights the gender and age-related differences in how urban forest benefits are perceived. Women, who are often more involved in household resource management and small-scale income-generating activities, may recognize the economic opportunities provided by urban forests more acutely. Younger respondents, who may be more innovative in seeking income opportunities, might also see urban forests as valuable resources for economic activities. These findings contrast with a study conducted in Zimbabwe, which found that men were more likely to utilize the material resources of urban forests, while acknowledging the provisioning services provided [36]. In Chile, provisioning services were preferred by farmers and local organizations [30]. However, this study revealed that variations in demographic characteristics did not result in significant differences in the perceived value of other provisioning ecosystem services.

4.3 Perception on supporting ecosystem services

The moderate valuation of the supporting ecosystem services by respondents suggests an awareness of the foundational role urban forests play in sustaining environmental health, even if these benefits are not immediately tangible. This level of appreciation is significant as it reflects a baseline understanding that urban forests contribute to the overall resilience and functionality of urban environments. The analysis indicates that respondents’ educational level and income positively influence their valuation of supporting ecosystem services. This means that individuals with higher education and income levels tend to place more value on these services, which could be due to greater awareness and understanding of environmental benefits and the ability to prioritize ecological well-being. Conversely, gender and age do not significantly affect how respondents value these ecosystem services, suggesting that these demographic factors do not play a crucial role in shaping perceptions of environmental support functions. Similar positive attitudes towards supporting ecosystem services have been observed in other areas as well. In Puerto Rico and four cities in France and Portugal, residents perceive habitat provision for pollinators and biodiversity protection as the most valued ecosystem services provided by urban forests [26].

A study conducted in Kuala Lumpur [27] reported that visitors have a positive opinion of the city’s supporting ecosystem services, with high scores averaging at 4.70 ± 0.50, which is higher than the score given by the residents in Mekelle (mean score of 2.81). The majority of locals in Kuala Lumpur are willing to contribute to the preservation of urban forests and value the environmental services they provide [27]. In contrast, a study conducted in China found that residents perceive the medicinal, biological, and maintenance of seminatural habitats services provided by urban forests to be of low importance [29]. Additionally, research in Norway revealed a decrease in the perceived importance of supporting (habitat) services over the past 50 years [24].

4.4 Perception on cultural ecosystem services

The current study accentuates the critical role urban forests play in delivering cultural ecosystem services, which include recreational and educational opportunities. The moderate appreciation of cultural ecosystem services by residents suggests a recognition of the recreational and educational benefits that urban forests offer, though perhaps not to their full potential. Additionally, the educational value of urban forests, utilized by institutions like Mekelle University for research and hands-on learning, highlights their importance in fostering environmental awareness and academic growth. However, the moderate level of appreciation indicates there is room for increasing awareness and engagement with these services.

Studies conducted in Catalonia, Spain [34], and Kuala Lumpur [27] reported high scores for the valuation of cultural ecosystem services, with average values of 4.44 and 4.69, respectively. These scores are higher than the mean value of 3.32 given to cultural ecosystem services of urban forests in Mekelle. Similarly, studies conducted in China [6, 29], Hyderabad [35], and Southern Patagonia [37] have also found a high valuation of cultural ecosystem services.

In a study conducted in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, it was found that people appreciate the cultural ecosystem services provided by forests, including aesthetic landscape improvement, tourism, recreation, and various religious, spiritual, and educational services [38]. Urban forests, woodlands, shrublands, and gardens also offer cultural ecosystem services, such as recreational, educational, and scientific services [10].

The study revealed a positive correlation between residents’ perceptions of the cultural ecosystem services provided by urban forests and their levels of education and income. This finding suggests that individuals with higher education and income levels tend to have a more positive attitude towards the recreational and educational benefits offered by urban forests. This finding aligns with a study conducted in Chile, where educated individuals valued cultural ecosystem services highly [30], as well as in Mediterranean landscapes, where participation in economic activities related to the enjoyment of landscape beauty was influenced by age and income [39]. In Brisbane, Australia, male residents were found to visit parks for recreational purposes more frequently than female residents [40]. A study conducted in Berlin also revealed that educated and laypeople perceive the benefits of urban cultural ecosystems differently [16]. Overall, our findings suggest that the valuation of cultural ecosystem services provided by urban forests is influenced by different socioeconomic factors, particularly education and awareness. Those with higher education levels and better awareness tend to have a more positive attitude towards the cultural ecosystem services of urban forests. These findings highlight the importance of education and awareness-raising initiatives in enhancing the appreciation and understanding of the cultural benefits provided by urban forests.

4.5 Overall perception

The findings suggest that the residents of Mekelle highly value the ecosystem regulation services provided by urban forests, while they rate the provisioning, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services as moderately valuable. This high regard for regulation services likely stems from their direct and noticeable benefits, such as protection from flood, sediment load minimization, etc. These services directly enhance the living environment, making their importance easily recognized and appreciated by urban residents. In contrast, provisioning services, which include tangible goods like fuelwood and charcoal, may be less critical or accessible in an urban setting, leading to a medium valuation. Supporting services, essential for the long-term sustainability of ecosystems, are often less visible and immediate to residents, possibly explaining their medium value. Cultural services, encompassing recreational, and educational benefits, also receive a medium value, perhaps due to the availability of other recreational options or different cultural priorities in the urban environment. The overall medium value assigned to the ecosystem services of urban forests suggests that while residents appreciate certain benefits, particularly regulatory ones, they may not fully recognize or prioritize the broader range of services provided by these urban forests. This highlights a potential need for increased public education and outreach to raise awareness about the diverse benefits of urban forests. Other studies show that people have diverging understandings regarding the ecosystem services of urban forests [41]. For instance, even though residents in Puerto Rican, Zimbabwe, Dzivaresekwa, Italy, and Lalitpur view ecosystem services differently, they had positive attitudes regarding urban forests and were aware of the benefits they offered [25, 26, 42].

The study indicates that age and educational status significantly influence respondents’ perceptions of ecosystem services provided by urban forests. Individuals with higher educational attainment and those of older age tend to place a higher value on these services. This suggests that education and life experience may enhance awareness and appreciation of the benefits provided by urban forests. This likely stems from their greater awareness and understanding of environmental issues, which helps them appreciate the benefits of urban forests more fully, including both visible and less visible services. These results emphasize the importance of integrating environmental education into curricula and community programs. Educating the public about the diverse benefits of urban forests can foster a more informed and environmentally conscious community, leading to greater support for urban forestry initiatives and policies aimed at preserving and enhancing these vital green spaces, like urban forests. Similarly, others indicated that educated people and non-educated people view the benefits of urban green spaces differently for a variety of reasons [16]. In a research in Berlin, and two areas of Florida [43], educated people were found to have a positive attitude towards the benefits of urban forests [16, 43]. In the study of Florida, younger people exhibited a positive attitude towards the urban ecosystem services, whereas in Hillsborough, older people exhibited a positive attitude towards the benefits [43], which is similar to our findings. Hence the main factors affecting residents of Mekelle to have a positive attitude on ecosystem services of urban forests are level of education and age. Others also indicate that youngsters visit forests less frequently and differ from adults in terms of their interests and activities, as well as their motivations for visiting and not visiting forests. Adults utilize forests more contemplatively, while teenagers use them more socially and actively [44].

Furthermore, the findings indicate that income, gender, and occupation did not significantly influence residents’ perceptions of the ecosystem services of urban forests. This implies that factors such as awareness and education may play a more critical role in shaping perceptions than income, gender, or occupation. Unlike our findings, a study in Mississauga, Canada shows that income and education were not significantly correlated with tree management [45]. Nevertheless, research conducted in parks in Hyderabad show that wealthier residents benefit more recreationally from urban parks, while visitors from low-income backgrounds are severely restricted in their access to essential provisioning services [35].

5 Conclusion

The study revealed that respondents hold a highly positive perception of the regulating ecosystem services of urban forests, such as temperature regulation, run-off minimization, and flood protection. This suggests that the residents are well aware of the environmental benefits and the role these urban forests play in enhancing their living conditions.

However, the provisioning, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services were perceived as moderately valuable. This indicates that while residents recognize the benefits of regulating services, they may not fully appreciate or prioritize the broader range of ecosystem services offered by urban forests. The medium valuation of provisioning services, including fuelwood and charcoal, might reflect the reduced dependency on these resources in an urban setting. Similarly, supporting services, essential for long-term ecosystem sustainability, and cultural services, encompassing recreational and educational benefits, received medium ratings, possibly due to other available recreational options or different cultural priorities within the urban environment.

The study also highlighted significant correlations between certain sociodemographic characteristics and the value placed on these ecosystem services. Higher educational attainment and older age were associated with a greater appreciation of the benefits provided by urban forests. This underscores the importance of education and life experience in enhancing environmental awareness and valuation. In contrast, gender, income, and occupation did not significantly influence the perceived value of ecosystem services, suggesting that these factors may be less critical than education and age in shaping perceptions.

These findings have important implications for urban forest management and policy. Understanding the varying perceptions across different demographic groups can help in developing more effective and inclusive urban forest management strategies that cater to the diverse needs and priorities of the community. They highlight the need for targeted educational and awareness-raising initiatives to enhance the recognition and appreciation of the diverse benefits provided by urban forests. Enhancing education and outreach efforts can play a pivotal role in achieving this, leading to more sustainable urban forest management and greater community engagement in conservation efforts.