Abstract
This article explores discourses surrounding animal activism with reference to a moral judgement continuum. The analysis categorises animal activism in terms of discrete, yet overlapping, frames of ‘good’ animal activism and ‘bad’ animal activism. Different types of activism elicit different responses from the media, the general public and farmers alike. Where activism that condemns animal-based industries in their entirety are often subject to collective condemnation, activism that sheds light on specific instances of animal mistreatment often receives widespread support—including from farmers themselves. Another variable that shapes responses to animal activism by farmers and that has tangible impacts on their perceptions and actions is where farmers are situated in regard to economic vulnerability and social resilience. In this article, we delineate the complexities surrounding the welfare-rights and vulnerable-resilient variables by engaging with empirical examples derived from the Australian context. Animal activism is all too often framed in reductive and polarising ways. This article sheds light on the importance of more fluid analyses of complicated issues.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Animals Australia. (n.d.). Frequently asked questions (FAQ). https://www.animalsaustralia.org/about/faqs.php
Animals Australia. (n.d.). The reality of dairy: Killing calves. https://www.animalsaustralia.org/issues/what-happens-to-dairy-calves.php
Animal Liberation Victoria. (n.d.). About ALV. https://www.alv.org.au/the-facts/about-alv/
Animal Liberation Victoria. (n.d.). Our mission. https://www.alv.org.au/the-facts/our-mission/
Barclay, E. (2016). Farm victimisation: The quintessential rural crime. In J. Donnermeyer (Ed.), The Routledge international handbook of rural criminology (pp. 140–148). Routledge.
Barclay, E., & Bartel, R. (2015). Defining environmental crime: The perspective of farmers. Journal of Rural Studies, 39, 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2015.01.007
Barnes, A., & White, R. (2020). Mapping emotions: Exploring the impact of the Aussie Farms Map. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 36(3), 303–326. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986220910306
Barrowclough, N. (2015). How activist Lyn White rewrote the rules on animal welfare. The Sydney Morning Herald. https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/how-activist-lyn-white-rewrote-the-rules-on-animal-welfare-20150610-ghkmar.html
Beirne, P. (1999). For a nonspeciesist criminology: Animal abuse as an object of study. Criminology, 37(1), 117–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1999.tb00481.x
Beirne, P. (2014). Theriocide: Naming animal killing. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy, 4(3), 50–67. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v3i2.174
Bruckner, H. K. (2018). Beyond happy meat: Visceral (dis)connections to animals in alternative food networks. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Graz.
Buddle, E. A., & Bray, H. J. (2019). How farm animal welfare issues are framed in the Australian news media. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 32, 357–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-019-09778-z
Clifford, K., & White, R. (2017). Media and crime: Content, context and consequence. Oxford University Press.
Cole, M., & Morgan, K. (2011). Vegaphobia: Derogatory discourses of veganism and the reproduction of speciesism in UK national newspapers. The British Journal of Sociology, 62(1), 134–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2010.01348.x
Christie, N. (1986). The ideal victim. In E. A. Fattah (Ed.), From crime policy to victim policy: Reorienting the justice system (pp. 17–30). Palgrave Macmillan.
D’Angelo, P. (2018). Prologue—A typology of frames in news framing analysis. In P. D’Angelo (Ed.), Doing news framing analysis II: Empirical and theoretical perspectives (pp. xxiii-xl). Routledge.
Dekeseredy, W. (2020). Preventing violence against women in the heartland. In A. Harkness (Ed.), Rural Crime Prevention: Theory, Tactics and Techniques (pp. 133–144). Routledge.
Ellefsen, R. (2012). Green movements as threats to order and economy: Animal activists repressed in Austria and beyond. In R. Ellefsen, R. Sollund, & G. Larsen (Eds.), Eco-global crimes: Contemporary problems and future challenges (pp. 181–205). Ashgate.
Evans, B. L. (2018). Animal cruelty, discourse, and power: A study of problematisations in the live export policy debates. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Queensland University of Technology.
Fernandes, J. N., Hemsworth, P. H., Coleman, G. J., & Tilbrook, A. J. (2021). Costs and benefits of improving farm animal welfare. Agriculture, 11(104), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020104
Fitzgerald, A., & Taylor, N. (2014). The cultural hegemony of meat and the animal industrial complex. In N. Taylor & R. Twine (Eds.), The rise of critical animal studies (pp. 165–182). Routledge.
Fitzgerald, D. (2003). Every farm a factory: The industrial ideal in American agriculture. Yale University Press.
Four Corners. (2011). A bloody business. ABC. http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2011/s3230934.htm
Francione, G. (2010). Law and animals. In M. Bekoff (Ed.), Encyclopedia of animal rights and animal welfare (Vol 2, pp. 353–356). Greenwood Press.
Francis, C. (2020). Big win for vegan activism. The Weekly Times. https://www.weeklytimesnow.com.au%2Fnews%2Fvictoria%2Fanimal-activism-inquiry-a-big-win-for-vegan-activism%2Fnews-story%2Fbf1cd660795f74c093b02a8bb7b287dd&memtype=registered&mode=premium#command-form.
Fraser, D. (2010). Animal welfare. In M. Bekoff (Ed.), Encyclopedia of animal rights and animal welfare (Vol. 1, pp. 47–49). Greenwood Press.
Freeman, C. (2010). Framing animal rights in the “Go Veg” campaigns of U.S. animal rights organizations. International History Review, 18(2), 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853010X492015
Freeman, C. (2013). Stepping up to the veggie plate: Framing veganism as living your values. In E. Plec (Ed.), Perspectives on human-animal communication: Internatural communication (pp. 93–112). Taylor and Francis.
Garner, R. (2006). Animal welfare: A political defense. Journal of Animal Law and Ethics, 1, 161–174.
Gladkova, E. (2020). Farming intensification and environmental justice in Northern Ireland. Critical Criminology, 28(3), 445–461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-020-09488-3
Gullone, E., & Clarke, J. (2010). Abuse, cruelty, and welfare: An Australian perspective. In F. Ascione (Ed.), The international handbook of animal abuse and cruelty: Theory, research, and application (pp. 305–334). Purdue University Press.
Isakson, S. R. (2015). Derivatives for development? Small-farmer vulnerability and the financialization of climate risk management. Journal of Agrarian Change, 15(4), 569–580. https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12124
Janssen, J. (2014). On the relationship between animal victimization and stigmatization of ethnic groups: The case of ritual slaughter. In T. Spapens, R. White, & M. Kluin (Eds.), Environmental crime and its victims: Perspectives within green criminology (pp. 205–217). Routledge.
Jena, N. P. (2017). Animal welfare and animal rights: An examination of some ethical problems. Journal of Academic Ethics, 15(4), 377–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-017-9282-1
Killias, M. (1990). Vulnerability: Towards a better understanding of a key variable in the genesis of fear of crime. Violence and Victims, 5, 97–108.
Larkins, M., Gibbs, C., & Rivers, L., III. (2013). Toward advancing research on the social and environmental impacts of confined animal feeding operations. CRIMSOC Journal of Social Criminology, 4, 10–63.
Lawrence, G. (1987). Capitalism and the countryside: The rural crisis in Australia. Pluto Press.
Lazare, J. (2020). Ag-gag laws, animal rights activism, and the constitution: What is protected speech? Alberta Law Review, 58(1), 83–105.
Lee, M. (2017). Fear, vulnerability and victimisation. In P. Davies, P. Francis, & C. Greer (Eds.), Victims, crime & society: An introduction (pp. 127–145). Sage.
Mahony, P. (2020). AJP’s claimed victories from animal activism inquiry may be overstated. Planetary Vegan. https://planetaryvegan.net/2020/06/20/ajps-claimed-victories-from-animal-activism-inquiry-may-be-overstated/
Mawby, R. I., & Jones, C. (2004). Explaining patterns of victimisation within a rural country of England. International Journal of Criminal Justice Review, 14(1), 99–123. https://doi.org/10.1177/105756770401400105
McCausland, C., O’Sullivan, S., & Brenton, S. (2013). Trespass, animals and democratic engagement. Res Publica, 19, 205–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-013-9214-x
McCausland, C. (2014). The five freedoms of animal welfare are rights. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 27, 649–662. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-013-9483-6
Meddick, A. (2020). Animal activism inquiry makes animal protection recommendations [Media release]. https://andymeddick.com.au/2020/02/05/activism-inquiry-report/?fbclid=IwAR2bykLOxlUC7_cLTBs9RyX-2Z8Q9fiyJccQNiJgVMiW-YWqepogVkWNp74
Miller, A. (2019). Extreme animal rights activists adding to farmers’ stress, says Vallance. Stock & Land. https://www.stockandland.com.au/story/6365087/toughen-trespass-laws-says-vff-livestock-group/
Mills, K. E., Robbins, J., & von Keyserlingk, M. A. G. (2016). Tail docking and ear cropping dogs: Public awareness and perceptions. PLoS ONE, 11(16), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158131
Moret, G. (2019). Animal rights group creates online map showing farm locations and contact details. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-21/animal-rightsgroup-aussie-farms-online-map-farmers-backlash/10731560
Morgan, G., & Poynting, S. (2012). Introduction: The transnational folk devil. In G. Morgan & S. Poynting (Eds.), Global Islamophobia: Muslims and moral panic in the West (pp. 1–14). Ashgate.
Mummery, J., & Rodan, D. (2019). Becoming activist: The mediation of consumers in Animals Australia’s Make it Possible campaign. Media International Australia, 172(1), 48–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X19853077
Munroe, L. (2014). The live animal export controversy in Australia: A moral crusade made for the mass media. Social Movement Studies, 14(2), 214–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2013.874524
News.com.au. Vegan activist Tash Peterson storms Bunnings fundraiser run by firefighters. https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/real-life/news-life/vegan-activist-tash-peterson-storms-bunnings-fundraiser-run-by-firefighters/news-story/30ef3befbd1d3325f0fa3d40d2b5c9a2#bottom-share
Newkirk, I. (2010). A pragmatic fight for animal rights. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/cif-green/2010/jan/21/peta-animalrights-Campaign
Noble, G. (2012). Where’s the moral in moral panic? Islam, evil and moral turbulence. In G. Morgan & S. Poynting (Eds.), Global Islamophobia: Muslims and moral panic in the West (pp. 215–231). Ashgate.
O’Sullivan, S., McCausland, C., & Brenton, S. (2017). Animals activists, civil disobedience and global responses to transnational injustice. Res Publica, 23, 261–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-017-9361-6
Parker, C., Carey, R., & Scrinis, G. (2018). The meat in the sandwich: Welfare labelling and the governance of meat-chicken production in Australia. Journal of Law and Society, 45(3), 341–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/jols.12119
Parliament of Victoria. (2020). Inquiry into the impact of animal rights activism on Victorian agriculture. https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/stories/committees/SCEI/Animal_rights_activism/Report/LCEIC_59-02_Impact_of_animal_activisim_on_Victorian_agriculture.pdf
Pendergrast, N. (2015). Live animal export, humane slaughter and media hegemony. Animal Studies Journal, 4(1), 99–125.
Poynting, S., Noble, G., Tabar, P., & Collins, J. (2004). Bin Laden in the suburbs: Criminalising the Arab other. Sydney Institute of Criminology, University of Sydney.
Pritchard, B., Burch, D., & Lawrence, G. (2007). Neither ‘family’ nor ‘corporate’ farming: Australian tomato growers as farm family entrepreneurs. Journal of Rural Studies, 23(1), 75–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2006.04.001
Rodan, D., & Mummery, J. (2019). Animals Australia and the challenges of vegan stereotyping. M/C Journal. https://doi.org/10.5204/mcj.1510
RSPCA. (n.d.). What does the term humane killing or humane slaughter mean? https://kb.rspca.org.au/knowledge-base/what-does-the-term-humane-killing-or-humane-slaughter-mean/#:~:text=The%20RSPCA%20definition%20of%20humane,so%20they%20immediately%20become%20unconscious.
RSPCA. (n.d.). What we do—Our role in advocacy. https://www.rspca.org.au/what-we-do#advocacy
SBS, The Feed. (2019, February 21). Vegans: Liberators or Thieves? https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-feed/this-woman-stole-a-goat-now-she-s-receiving-death-threats.
Schally, J. (2018). Legitimizing corporate harm: The discourse of contemporary agribusiness. Palgrave Macmillan.
Schröter, I., & Mergenthaler, M. (2019). Responsible innovation in layer poultry farming: Are organic consumers sufficiently informed about the current situation of killing day-old male chicks to contribute to the innovation process? International Journal of Food System Dynamics, 10(5), 486–497. https://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.18461/ijfsd.v10i5.32
Schwartz, B. (2020). The animal welfare battle: The production of affected ignorance in the Swedish meat industry debate. Culture and Organisation, 26(1), 75–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/14759551.2018.1513937
Sullivan, K. (2019, 11 April). Scott Morrison's Government fired up over vegan trespasses as federal election looms. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-11/government-response-to-a-vegan-debate/10990540
Singer, P. (1975). Animal liberation: A new ethics for our treatment of animals. Harper Collins.
Smith, K. (2019). Behavioural science and farm crime prevention decision making: Understanding the behavioural culture of farmers in England and Wales. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Harper Adams University.
Smith, K. (2020). Desolation in the country-side: How agricultural crime impacts the mental health of British farmers. Journal of Rural Studies, 80, 522–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.10.037
Villanueva, G. (2018). A transnational history of the Australian Animal Movement, 1970–2015. Palgrave Macmillan.
Walklate, S. (Ed). (2018). Handbook of victims and victimology. Routledge.
Walsh, P. (2020, February 6). Farm trespass inquiry delivers final report [Media release]. https://www.peterwalsh.org.au/media/farm-trespass-inquiry-delivers-final-report/
Weatherburn, D. J. (2004). Law and order in Australia: Rhetoric and reality. Federation Press.
Webster, J. (2010). Sentience and animal protection. In M. Bekoff (Ed.), Encyclopedia of animal rights and animal welfare (Vol. 2, pp. 507–511). Greenwood Press.
White, R. (2013). Environmental harm: An eco-justice perspective. Policy Press.
White, R. (2016). Inter-species violence: Humans and the harming of animals. In J. Stubbs & S. Tomsen (Eds.), Australian violence: Crime, criminal justice and beyond (pp. 176–193). The Federation Press.
White, R. (2018). Green victimology and non-human victims. International Review of Victimology, 24(2), 239–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758017745615
Yarwood, R., & Gardner, G. (2000). Fear of crime, cultural threat and the countryside. Area, 32(4), 403–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4762.2000.tb00156.x
Yilmaz Dikmen, B., İpek, A., Şahan, Ü., Petek, M., & Sözcü, A. (2016). Egg production and welfare of laying hens kept in different housing systems (conventional, enriched cage, and free range). Poultry Science, 95(7), 1564–1572. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pew082
Zoethout, C. M. (2013). Ritual slaughter and the freedom of religion: Some reflections on a stunning matter. Human Rights Quarterly, 35(3), 651–672. https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2013.0040
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pedersen, C., White, R. Discourses of Discord: Animal Activism and Moral Judgement. Int Criminol 1, 178–192 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43576-021-00027-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43576-021-00027-w