Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) are a key transportation alternative that can help reduce tailpipe emissions associated with internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The overall emphasis on sustainability, energy independence, and rapid technological advancement has influenced the US to set targets to increase EV adoption. This study investigates emerging technologies within the EV ecosystem, including those likely to take precedence, phase out, or require strengthening. In pursuit of comprehensive insights, we gathered stakeholders' perspectives on current and future EV ecosystem trends targeting different facets of the ecosystem. Existing EV surveys often center on specific issues, such as charging infrastructure, purchasing intentions, or battery swapping. However, no literature has comprehensively examined stakeholders’ perspectives on various dimensions of the EV ecosystem. To address this gap, we conducted a survey using SurveyMonkey, an online survey tool employing a purposive sampling technique to target stakeholders within the EV ecosystem. The results of this survey highlight several key findings. Stakeholders express a strong preference for alternatives to traditional plugin charging methods. In addition, cybersecurity emerges as a paramount concern, underscoring the critical need to address potential vulnerabilities in EV systems. This study highlights obstacles and possible pathways for developing the EV ecosystem. Moreover, these insights can guide policymakers, industry leaders, and researchers to shape effective strategies and regulations. By incorporating stakeholder perspectives and leveraging emerging technologies, the EV ecosystem can be fortified to accelerate widespread EV adoption and meet sustainability goals. Finally, this study paves the way for more comprehensive research, including in-person interviews.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data(s) sourced from public resources and created available with the manuscript.
Abbreviations
- AV:
-
Autonomous vehicles
- BSS:
-
Battery swap station
- DRC:
-
Democratic Republic of Congo
- EV:
-
Electric vehicles
- FCEV:
-
Fuel cell electric vehicles
- FDWA:
-
Federal Highway Administration
- HOV:
-
High occupancy vehicle
- ICEV:
-
Internal combustion engine vehicles
- MCS:
-
Mobile charging stations
- NACS:
-
National Association of Convenience Stores
- NEHC:
-
National electric highway coalition
- NEV:
-
New electric vehicle
- RES:
-
Renewable energy sources
- V2G:
-
Vehicle to grid
- V2H:
-
Vehicle to home
References
Aasness MA, Odeck J (2015) The increase of electric vehicle usage in Norway—Incentives and adverse effects. Eur Transp Res Rev 7(4):34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12544-015-0182-4
Agbesi PK, Ruffino R, Hakovirta M (2023) The development of sustainable electric vehicle business ecosystems. SN Business Econ 3(8):1–59
Agusdinata DB, Liu W, Eakin H, Romero H (2018) Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction: towards a research agenda. Environ Res Lett 13(12):123001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aae9b1
Al-Thyabat S, Nakamura T, Shibata E, Iizuka A (2013) Adaptation of minerals processing operations for lithium-ion (LiBs) and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries recycling: critical review. Miner Eng 45:4–17
Ambort L (2020) The Self-Healing Grid. Institute on the Environment. http://environment.umn.edu/education/susteducation/pathways-to-renewable-energy/the-self-healing-grid/
American Petroleum Institute (2021) Service Station FAQs. https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/consumer-resources/service-station-faqs
Assum T, Kolbenstvedt M, Figenbaum E (2014) The future of electromobility in Norway—some stakeholder perspectives. TØI Report, 1385/2014. https://trid.trb.org/view/1347322
Alternative Fuels Data Center (2021) Alternative fuels data center: public transportation. https://afdc.energy.gov/conserve/public_transportation.html
Autonomy (2022) Autonomy/Electric Car Subscription/Tesla Model 3 and Y. https://www.autonomy.com/
Bakker S, Maat K, van Wee B (2014) Stakeholders interests, expectations, and strategies regarding the development and implementation of electric vehicles: the case of the Netherlands. Transp Res Part A 66:52–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2014.04.018
Bamana G, Miller JD, Young SL, Dunn JB (2021) Addressing the social life cycle inventory analysis data gap: Insights from a case study of cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. One Earth 4(12):1704–1714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.11.007
Barry K (2022) Which EVs qualify for the new electric vehicle tax credit? It’s Complicated. Consumer Reports. https://www.consumerreports.org/cars/hybrids-evs/electric-vehicles-that-qualify-for-new-ev-tax-credit-a9310530660/
Basil MD, Brown WJ, Bocarnea MC (2002) Differences in univariate values versus multivariate relationships—findings from a Study of Diana. Princess Wales Human Commun Res 28(4):501–514. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00820.x
Bobanac V, Pandzic H, Capuder T (2018) Survey on electric vehicles and battery swapping stations: expectations of existing and future EV owners. IEEE Int Energy Conf (ENERGYCON) 2018:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ENERGYCON.2018.8398793
Bonett DG, Wright TA (2015) Cronbach’s alpha reliability: Interval estimation, hypothesis testing, and sample size planning. J Organ Behav 36(1):3–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1960
Bonsu NO (2020) Towards a circular and low-carbon economy: Insights from the transitioning to electric vehicles and net zero economy. J Clean Prod 256:120659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120659
Brown C, Boyd DS, Kara S (2022) Landscape analysis of cobalt mining activities from 2009 to 2021 using very high resolution satellite data (Democratic Republic of the Congo). Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159545
Butt OM, Zulqarnain M, Majeed Butt T (2021) Recent advancement in smart grid technology: future prospects in the electrical power network. Ain Shams Eng J 12(1):687–695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2020.05.004
Calvão F, Mcdonald CEA, Bolay M (2021) Cobalt mining and the corporate outsourcing of responsibility in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Extract Indus Soc 8(4):100884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2021.02.004
Cano ZP, Banham D, Ye S, Hintennach A, Lu J, Fowler M, Chen Z (2018) Batteries and fuel cells for emerging electric vehicle markets. Nat Energy. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0108-1
Cao J, Chen X, Qiu R, Hou S (2021) Electric vehicle industry sustainable development with a stakeholder engagement system. Technol Soc 67:101771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101771
Carley S, Krause RM, Lane BW, Graham JD (2013) Intent to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle: a survey of early impressions in large US cites. Transp Res Part D 18:39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2012.09.007
Chau KT (2014) Pure electric vehicles. In: Folkson R (ed) Alternative fuels and advanced vehicle technologies for improved environmental performance. Woodhead Publishing, Amsterdam, pp 655–684
Cobben D, Ooms W, Roijakkers N, Radziwon A (2022) Ecosystem types: a systematic review on boundaries and goals. J Bus Res 142:138–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.12.046
Coffman M, Bernstein P, Wee S (2017) Electric vehicles revisited: a review of factors that affect adoption. Transp Rev 37(1):79–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2016.1217282
Colmenar-Santos A, Muñoz-Gómez A-M, Rosales-Asensio E, López-Rey Á (2019) Electric vehicle charging strategy to support renewable energy sources in Europe 2050 low-carbon scenario. Energy 183:61–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.06.118
Costa CM, Barbosa JC, Gonçalves R, Castro H, Campo FJD, Lanceros-Méndez S (2021) Recycling and environmental issues of lithium-ion batteries: advances, challenges and opportunities. Energy Storage Mater 37:433–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2021.02.032
Costello KW (2023) Technology, not subsidies, is the key to electrification. https://www.theregreview.org/2023/06/14/costello-technology-not-subsidies-is-the-key-to-electrification/
Das HS, Rahman MM, Li S, Tan CW (2020) Electric vehicles standards charging infrastructure and impact on grid integration: a technological review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 120:109618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109618
Dorcec L, Pevec D, Vdovic H, Babic J, Podobnik V (2019) How do people value electric vehicle charging service? A gamified survey approach. J Clean Prod 210:887–897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.032
Ehsani M, Singh KV, Bansal HO, Mehrjardi RT (2021) State of the art and trends in electric and hybrid electric vehicles. Proc IEEE 109(6):967–984. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2021.3072788
EIA (2021) What is U.S. electricity generation by energy source? EIA. https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=pet&s=emm_epm0_pte_nus_dpg&f=m
EPA (2016) Environmental Factoids/WasteWise/US EPA. https://archive.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/smm/wastewise/web/html/factoid.html
Fazal MA, Haseeb ASMA, Masjuki HH (2011) Biodiesel feasibility study: an evaluation of material compatibility; performance; emission and engine durability. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 15(2):1314–1324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.10.004
Figenbaum E, Kolbenstvedt M (2013) Electromobility in Norway: experiences and opportunities with electric vehicles, p 10. https://www.toi.no/getfile.php/Publikasjoner/T%C3%98I%20rapporter/2013/1281-2013/1281-2013-elektronisk.pdf
Fisker (2023) Fisker Ocean/Legal Collection of Fisker terms, policies and agreements/Fisker Inc. https://www.fiskerinc.com/ocean
Forrest K, Mac Kinnon M, Tarroja B, Samuelsen S (2020) Estimating the technical feasibility of fuel cell and battery electric vehicles for the medium and heavy duty sectors in California. Appl Energy 276:115439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115439
Fortune Business Insights (2022) Lithium market size, growth, outlook/forecast analysis (2028). https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/lithium-market-104052
Frangoul A (2022) Australian bank to scrap loans for new diesel and gasoline cars as country looks to increase EV uptake. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/08/22/australian-bank-to-scrap-loans-for-new-diesel-and-gasoline-cars-.html
Freeman RE (2010) Strategic management: a stakeholder approach. Cambridge Univ Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139192675
Granstrand O, Holgersson M (2020) Innovation ecosystems: a conceptual review and a new definition. Technovation 90–91:102098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2019.102098
Gray N, O’Shea R, Wall D, Smyth B, Lens PNL, Murphy JD (2022) Batteries, fuel cells, or engines? A probabilistic economic and environmental assessment of electricity and electrofuels for heavy goods vehicles. Adv Appl Energy 8:100110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adapen.2022.100110
Gungor VC, Lu B, Hancke GP (2010) Opportunities and challenges of wireless sensor networks in smart grid. IEEE Trans Indus Electron 57(10):3557–3564. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2009.2039455
Hagemann H (2019) Gas station converts to electric charging station and speeds ahead of curve. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2019/10/26/773446805/gas-station-converts-to-electric-charging-station-and-speeds-ahead-of-curve
Hall D, Lutsey N (2020) Electric vehicle charging guide for cities, p 24. https://theicct.org/publication/electric-vehicle-charging-guide-for-cities/
Hernández G, Mogensen R, Younesi R, Mindemark J (2022) Fluorine-free electrolytes for lithium and sodium batteries. Batteries Supercaps 5(6):e202100373. https://doi.org/10.1002/batt.202100373
Herron D (2012) Fisker Karma’s caught fire and burned after being flooded by Hurricane Sandy. The Long Tail Pipe. https://longtailpipe.com/2012/10/31/fisker-karmas-caught-fire-and-burned-after-being-flooded-by-hurricane-sandy/
Hirschman AO (1958) The strategy of economic development. Yale University Press, New Haven
Hockenos P (2022) How Russia’s war is putting green tech progress in Jeopardy. Yale E360. https://e360.yale.edu/features/russia-ukraine-war-metals-electric-vehicles-renewables
IEA (2021) Global EV outlook 2021 (p 101). https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021
IEA (2022) Surging electricity demand is putting power systems under strain around the world—News. IEA. https://www.iea.org/news/surging-electricity-demand-is-putting-power-systems-under-strain-around-the-world
IEA (2023) Policy developments—Global EV Outlook 2023—Analysis. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/policy-developments
Ito K (2014) Do consumers respond to marginal or average price? Evidence from nonlinear electricity pricing. Am Econ Rev 104(2):537–563. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.2.537
Jin C, Sheng X, Ghosh P (2014) Optimized electric vehicle charging with intermittent renewable energy sources. IEEE J Selected Topics Signal Process 8(6):1063–1072. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTSP.2014.2336624
Jung SH, Feng T (2020) Government subsidies for green technology development under uncertainty. Eur J Oper Res 286(2):726–739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2020.03.047
Kang N, Feinberg FM, Papalambros PY (2016) Autonomous electric vehicle sharing system design. J Mech Design. https://doi.org/10.1115/14034471
Kapoor R (2018) Ecosystems: broadening the locus of value creation. J Organ Des 7(1):12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41469-018-0035-4
Larson PD, Viáfara J, Parsons RV, Elias A (2014) Consumer attitudes about electric cars: pricing analysis and policy implications. Transport Res Part A 69:299–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2014.09.002
Lavelle M (2022) Russia’s War in Ukraine reveals a risk for the EV future: price shocks in precious metals. Inside Climate News. https://insideclimatenews.org/news/28032022/russias-war-in-ukraine-reveals-a-risk-for-the-ev-future-price-shocks-in-precious-metals/
Łebkowski A (2017) Electric vehicle fire extinguishing system. Przegląd Elektrotechniczny 1(1):331–334. https://doi.org/10.15199/48.2017.01.77
Li T, Tao S, He K, Lu M, Xie B, Yang B, Sun Y (2021) V2G multi-objective dispatching optimization strategy based on user behavior model. Front Energy Res. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2021.739527
Lu C, Rong K, You J, Shi Y (2014) Business ecosystem and stakeholders’ role transformation: evidence from Chinese emerging electric vehicle industry. Expert Syst Appl 41(10):4579–4595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2014.01.026
Lu Z, Yang H, Yang Q-H, He P, Zhou H (2022) Building a beyond concentrated electrolyte for high-voltage anode-free rechargeable sodium batteries. Angew Chem 134(20):e202200410. https://doi.org/10.1002/ange.202200410
Maisel F, Neef C, Marscheider-Weidemann F, Nissen NF (2023) A forecast on future raw material demand and recycling potential of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles. Resour Conserv Recycl 192:106920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.106920
Makuza B, Tian Q, Guo X, Chattopadhyay K, Yu D (2021) Pyrometallurgical options for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries: a comprehensive review. J Power Sources 491:229622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229622
Martinho A, Herber N, Kroesen M, Chorus C (2021) Ethical issues in focus by the autonomous vehicles industry. Transp Rev 41(5):556–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2020.1862355
Mauler L, Duffner F, Zeier GW, Leker, J (2021) Battery cost forecasting: a review of methods and results with an outlook to 2050. Energy Environ Sci 14(9):4712–4739. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1EE01530C
Mbah RE, Wasum D (2022) Russian–Ukraine 2022 War: a review of the economic impact of Russian–Ukraine Crisis on the USA, UK, Canada, and Europe. Adv Soc Sci Res J. https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.93.12005
Mersky AC, Sprei F, Samaras C, Qian Z, (Sean) (2016) Effectiveness of incentives on electric vehicle adoption in Norway. Transp Res Part D 46:56–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2016.03.011
Mikecz R (2012) Interviewing elites: addressing methodological issues. Qual Inq 18(6):482–493. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800412442818
Millard-Ball A (2005) Car-sharing: where and how it succeeds. Transportation research board of the national academies. The National Academic Press, Washington DC
Mrozik W, Ali Rajaeifar M, Heidrich O, Christensen P (2021) Environmental impacts, pollution sources and pathways of spent lithium-ion batteries. Energy Environ Sci 14(12):6099–6121. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1EE00691F
Neumann J, Petranikova M, Meeus M, Gamarra JD, Younesi R, Winter M, Nowak S (2022) Recycling of lithium-ion batteries—current state of the art, circular economy, and next generation recycling. Adv Energy Mater 12(17):2102917. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202102917
Parvin K, Hannan MA, Hui Mun L, Hossain Lipu MS, Abdolrasol MGM, Jern Ker P, Muttaqi KM, Dong ZY (2022) The future energy internet for utility energy service and demand-side management in smart grid: current practices, challenges and future directions. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 53:102648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102648
Patt A, Steffen B (2022) A historical turning point? Early evidence on how the Russia-Ukraine war changes public support for clean energy policies. Energy Res Soc Sci 91:102758
Pettigrew S, Cronin SL (2019) Stakeholder views on the social issues relating to the introduction of autonomous vehicles. Transp Policy 81:64–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.06.004
Plötz P, Axsen J, Funke SA, Gnann T (2019) Designing car bans for sustainable transportation. Nat Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0328-9
Power JD (2021) How much does a semi truck weigh? J.D. Power. https://www.jdpower.com/cars/shopping-guides/how-much-does-a-semi-truck-weigh
Qualtrics (2018) Survey straightlining: what it is and how to fight it. Qualtrics. https://www.qualtrics.com/blog/straightlining-what-is-it-how-can-it-hurt-you-and-how-to-protect-against-it/
Ramey J (2022a) Shell station converted to EV charging in a glimpse of the future. Autoweek. https://www.autoweek.com/news/green-cars/a38802959/shell-ev-charging-station-uk/
Ramey J (2022b). Nio is on a battery swap station building spree. Autoweek. https://www.autoweek.com/news/green-cars/a38940983/nio-building-ev-battery-swap-stations/
Saidani Neffati O, Sengan S, Thangavelu KD, Dilip Kumar S, Setiawan R, Elangovan M, Mani D, Velayutham P (2021) Migrating from traditional grid to smart grid in smart cities promoted in developing country. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 45:101125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2021.101125
Santis MD, Regis F (2021) Modeling, simulation, and techno-economic analysis of a retrofitted electric vehicle. 2021 IEEE international conference on environment and electrical engineering and 2021 IEEE industrial and commercial power systems Europe (EEEIC / IandCPS Europe), pp 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/EEEIC/ICPSEurope51590.2021.9584594
Santos G, Davies H (2020) Incentives for quick penetration of electric vehicles in five European countries: perceptions from experts and stakeholders. Transp Res Part A 137:326–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2018.10.034
Sierzchula W, Bakker S, Maat K, van Wee B (2014) The influence of financial incentives and other socio-economic factors on electric vehicle adoption. Energy Policy 68:183–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2014.01.043
Sinai M (2018) How are cars recycled? https://recyclenation.com/2018/03/how-are-cars-recycled/
Slowik P, Searle S, Basma H, Miller J, Zhou Y, Rodríguez F, Buysse C, Kelly S, Minjares R, Pierce L, Orvis R, and Baldwin S (2023) Analyzing the impact of the inflation reduction act on electric vehicle uptake in the United States. https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/ira-impact-evs-us-jan23-2.pdf
Song K, Lan Y, Zhang X, Jiang J, Sun C, Yang G, Yang F, Lan H (2023) A review on interoperability of wireless charging systems for electric vehicles. Energies. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041653
State of California (2022) New report on september heat wave details California’s action to meet historic challenges to power grid. California Governor. https://www.gov.ca.gov/2022/11/02/new-report-on-september-heat-wave-details-californias-action-to-meet-historic-challenges-to-power-grid/
Sun Q, Chen H, Long R, Li Q, Huang H (2022) Comparative evaluation for recycling waste power batteries with different collection modes based on Stackelberg game. J Environ Manage 312:114892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114892
T4L (2022) T4L—Electric car subscription/EV subscriptions. https://www.t4l.me/
Thomas LDW, Autio E (2019) Innovation ecosystems (SSRN Scholarly Paper 3476925). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3476925
Towoju OA, Ishola FA (2020) A case for the internal combustion engine powered vehicle. Energy Rep 6:315–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2019.11.082
Tunsu C, Retegan T (2016) Chapter 6—hydrometallurgical processes for the recovery of metals from WEEE. In: Chagnes A, Cote G, Ekberg C, Nilsson M, Retegan T (eds) WEEE Recycling. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 139–175
Un-Noor F, Padmanaban S, Mihet-Popa L, Mollah MN, Hossain E (2017) A comprehensive study of key electric vehicle (EV) components, technologies, challenges, impacts, and future direction of development. Energies. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10081217
US EPA (2022) Fast facts on transportation greenhouse gas emissions [Overviews and Factsheets]. https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/fast-facts-transportation-greenhouse-gas-emissions
USGS (2022) Mineral commodity summaries 2022—Lithium. https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-lithium.pdf
Velázquez-Martínez O, Valio J, Santasalo-Aarnio A, Reuter M, Serna-Guerrero R (2019) A critical review of lithium-ion battery recycling processes from a circular economy perspective. Batteries. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5040068
Wakabayashi D, Fu C (2022) For China’s auto market, electric isn’t the future. it’s the present. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/26/business/china-electric-vehicles.html
Wang WG, Lyons DW, Clark NN, Gautam M, Norton PM (2000) Emissions from nine heavy trucks fueled by diesel and biodiesel blend without engine modification. Environ Sci Technol 34(6):933–939. https://doi.org/10.1021/es981329b
Wappelhorst S (2021) Update on government targets for phasing out new sales of internal combustion engine passenger cars. 12
Watts R, Ghosh A, Hinshelwood J (2021) Exploring the potential for electric retrofit regulations and an accreditation scheme for the UK. Electronics. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10243110
Whitehouse.gov. (2021) FACT SHEET: President Biden announces steps to drive American Leadership forward on clean cars and trucks. The White House. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/08/05/fact-sheet-president-biden-announces-steps-to-drive-american-leadership-forward-on-clean-cars-and-trucks/
Wolbertus R, Jansen S, Kroesen M (2020) Stakeholders’ perspectives on future electric vehicle charging infrastructure developments. Futures 123:102610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2020.102610
Wolf M, Lambert R, Schmidt A-D, Enderle T, GmbH E (2017) Feasible attack paths and effective protection against ransomware in modern vehicles. 14. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/W-ANNA-D-RIVE-Feasible-Attack-Paths-and-Effective-Wolf-Lambert/d6d851ff6e27b68b57aa587483c173d759365bd4
Wu TH, Pang GKH, Choy KL, Lam HY (2015) An optimization model for a battery swapping station in Hong Kong. IEEE Transport Electri Conf Expo (ITEC) 2015:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ITEC.2015.7165769
Wurster S (2021) Creating a circular economy in the automotive industry: the contribution of combining crowdsourcing and delphi research. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126762
Yan T (2008) Encyclopedia of survey research methods. Sage Publications Inc, Thousand Oaks, pp 521–521. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963947
Yang T, Luo D, Yu A, Chen Z (2023) Enabling future closed-loop recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries: direct cathode regeneration. Adv Mater. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202203218
Yanowitz J, McCormick RL (2009) Effect of biodiesel blends on North American heavy-duty diesel engine emissions. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 111(8):763–772. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.200800245
Yuan X, Liu X, Zuo J (2015) The development of new energy vehicles for a sustainable future: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 42:298–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.016
Zheng Y, Shao Z, Lei X, Shi Y, Jian L (2022) The economic analysis of electric vehicle aggregators participating in energy and regulation markets considering battery degradation. J Energy Storage 45:103770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103770
Zhou et al (2016) Plug-in electric vehicle policy effectiveness: literature review. https://doi.org/10.2172/1255232
Zhou K, Cheng L, Lu X, Wen L (2020) Scheduling model of electric vehicles charging considering inconvenience and dynamic electricity prices. Appl Energy 276:115455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115455
Zhou M, Li B, Li J, Xu Z (2021) Pyrometallurgical technology in the recycling of a spent lithium ion battery: evolution and the challenge. ACS ES&T Eng 1(10):1369–1382. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestengg.1c00067
Acknowledgements
The author(s) have no acknowledgment to declare.
Funding
No funding was received for conducting this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The manuscript was written through contributions from all authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript. All authors contributed equally.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from the individual participants included in the study.
Consent for publication
The author(s) give full consent for this publication of identifiable details, which can include images, graphs, and charts (“Material”) for publication in the above Journal.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Agbesi, P.K., Ruffino, R. & Hakovirta, M. Creating an optimal electric vehicle ecosystem: an investigation of electric vehicle stakeholders and ecosystem trends in the US. SN Bus Econ 4, 28 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-024-00624-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-024-00624-7