Abstract
Electrifying passenger transportation has been a topic of interest for several decades as a method of reducing carbon emissions and promoting a more sustainable society. Globally, nations are implementing policies and regulations, promoting and setting goals for carbon neutrality, lowering carbon emissions, and doing away with combustion vehicles. The electric vehicle (EV) industry has seen significant growth over the past few decades due to increased environmental awareness, political influences, and economic benefits. Even so, before they can become a reliable mode of transportation, significant changes need to be implemented to improve the EV ecosystem. Previous literature has explored issues such as lack of charging infrastructure, charging times, and range anxiety that hinder the mass adoption of EVs. However, to our knowledge, there is no literature that discusses the interdependencies of the EV ecosystem holistically and how many of the aforementioned elements interact. Additionally, there is little discussion on sustainable materials which could be instrumental to EV ecosystem development. This paper attempts to discuss many ecosystem components, present trends, difficulties, and possible frameworks for sustainable advancement. Through this research, we found that the EV ecosystem development will be a collective effort and will rely on the collaboration of multiple actors.
Graphical abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Source: Based on IEA data from the IEA (2021a, b) Renewables, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-2021/renewables. All rights reserved (IEA 2022)
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability statement
Data(s) sourced from public resources and created available with the manuscript.
Abbreviations
- BESS:
-
Battery energy storage system
- BEV:
-
Battery electric vehicles
- Cl2 :
-
Chlorine
- CLT:
-
Cross-laminated timber
- Co:
-
Cobalt
- CO2 :
-
Carbon dioxide
- CPT:
-
Capacitive power transfer
- EU:
-
European Union
- EV:
-
Electric vehicle
- EVCS:
-
Electric vehicle charging stations
- EVSE:
-
Electric vehicle supply equipment
- Fe:
-
Iron
- GHG:
-
Greenhouse gas
- G20:
-
Intergovernmental forum comprised of 19 countries and the EU
- H2SO4 :
-
Sulfuric acid
- HCl:
-
Hydrochloric acid
- HEV:
-
Hybrid electric vehicle
- HNO3 :
-
Nitric acid
- ICEV:
-
Internal combustion vehicle
- IPT:
-
Inductive power transfer
- LCO:
-
Lithium cobalt oxide
- LFP:
-
Lithium iron phosphate
- LIB:
-
Lithium-ion battery
- LIDAR:
-
Light detection and ranging
- LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 :
-
Lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide
- LMO:
-
Lithium manganese oxide
- MaaS:
-
Mobility as a service
- MCS:
-
Mobile charging strategy
- Mn:
-
Manganese
- NEV:
-
New energy vehicle
- Ni:
-
Nickel
- NMC:
-
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide
- NOx :
-
Nitrous oxides
- OEM:
-
Original equipment manufacturer
- PBES:
-
Photovoltaic battery energy storage
- PEV:
-
Pure electric vehicle
- PHEV:
-
Plugin hybrid electric vehicle
- PM:
-
Particulate matter
- PV:
-
Photovoltaic
- RES:
-
Renewable energy sources
- SCC:
-
Social cost of carbon
- SIB:
-
Sodium-ion battery
- SO3 :
-
Sulfur trioxide
- TEPCO:
-
Tokyo Electric Power Company
- V2G:
-
Vehicle to grid
- V2H:
-
Vehicle to home
- WCS:
-
Wireless charging system
References
Adner R (2012) The wide lens: a new strategy for innovation. Penguin
Adner R (2017) Ecosystem as structure: an actionable construct for strategy. J Manag 43(1):39–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316678451
Adner R, Kapoor R (2010) Value creation in innovation ecosystems: how the structure of technological interdependence affects firm performance in new technology generations. Strateg Manag J 31(3):306–333. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.821
Afshar S, Macedo P, Mohamed F, Disfani V (2021) Mobile charging stations for electric vehicles—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 152:111654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111654
Agusdinata DB, Liu W, Eakin H, Romero H (2018) Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction: towards a research agenda. Environ Res Lett 13(12):123001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aae9b1
Åhman M (2006) Government policy and the development of electric vehicles in Japan. Energy Policy 34(4):433–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2004.06.011
Ahmad A, Alam MS, Chabaan R (2018) A comprehensive review of wireless charging technologies for electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Transp Electrif 4(1):38–63. https://doi.org/10.1109/TTE.2017.2771619
Ahmad F, Saad Alam M, Saad Alsaidan I, Shariff SM (2020) Battery swapping station for electric vehicles: opportunities and challenges. IET Smart Grid 3(3):280–286. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-stg.2019.0059
Alternative Fuel Implementation Tool Kit Case Study on Electric Vehicles: City of Durham and Durham County, North Carolina (2015) https://nccleantech.ncsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Possible-Followup-Project-2012-Toolkit-PEV-Case-Study.pdf
Alternative Fuels Data Center (2021) Alternative fuels data center: developing infrastructure to charge plug-in electric vehicles. https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/electricity_infrastructure.html
Alternative Fuels Data Center (2022a) Alternative fuels data center: electric vehicle charging station locations. https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/electricity_locations.html#/find/nearest?fuel=ELEC
Alternative Fuels Data Center (2022b) Alternative fuels data center: hybrid and plug-in electric vehicles. https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric.html
Alternative Fuels Data Center (2022c) Alternative fuels data center: maps and data—electric vehicle registrations by state. https://afdc.energy.gov/data/
Alternative Fuels Data Center (2022d) Alternative fuels data center: zero emission vehicle (ZEV) promotion plan. https://afdc.energy.gov/laws/10212
American Petroleum Institute (2021) Service station FAQs. https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/consumer-resources/service-station-faqs
Arie AA, Kristianto H, Demir E, Cakan RD (2018) Activated porous carbons derived from the Indonesian snake fruit peel as anode materials for sodium ion batteries. Mater Chem Phys 217:254–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2018.06.076
Armental M (2022) Nio falls on deliveries guidance. https://www.morningstar.com/news/dow-jones/202203256768/nio-falls-on-deliveries-guidance
Audi (2022) Powering profitability. Audi.Com. Retrieved May 5, 2022, from https://audi.com.jm/en/company/sustainability/core-topics/operations-and-integrity/powering-profitability.html
Automotive News (2022) Honda tempers “out of whack” expectations for EV demand in U.S. Automotive News. https://www.autonews.com/sales/honda-tempers-out-whack-expectations-ev-demand-us
Automotive News Europe (2021) German electric-car sales triple in 2020. Automotive News Europe. https://europe.autonews.com/automakers/german-electric-car-sales-triple-2020
B2BEV (2022) All electric car manufacturers. https://www.b2bev.com/c/electric-car-manufacturers/
Balaguru K, Foltz GR, Leung LR (2018) Increasing magnitude of hurricane rapid intensification in the central and eastern tropical Atlantic. Geophys Res Lett 45(9):4238–4247. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL077597
Baldwin CY (2014) Bottlenecks, modules and dynamic architectural capabilities. Harvard Business School Working Paper Series # 15-028. https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/13350434
Barth H, Jung M, Braun M, Schmuelling B, Reker U (2011) Concept evaluation of an inductive charging system for electric vehicles.
Berry M (2022) How many uber drivers are there? The Rideshare Guy Blog and Podcast. https://therideshareguy.com/how-many-uber-drivers-are-there/
Best-Selling-Cars.com (2022) Best-selling electric car models and brands. Car Sales Statistics. https://www.best-selling-cars.com/electric/2021-full-year-europe-best-selling-electric-car-models-and-brands/
Bhatia KT, Vecchi GA, Knutson TR, Murakami H, Kossin J, Dixon KW, Whitlock CE (2019) Recent increases in tropical cyclone intensification rates. Nat Commun. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08471-z
Bin Q, Fushan Z (2011) The countermeasures and analysis of the bottlenecks of BEV in development. In: 2011 International Conference on Materials for Renewable Energy & Environment, 1, 915–918. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICMREE.2011.5930951
Blake ES, Landsea CW, Gibney EJ (2011) NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC-6, p 49
Bocconi Students Investment Club (2021) Electric vehicles: traditional automotive giants vs disruptive tech companies—BSIC | Bocconi Students Investment Club. https://bsic.it/electric-vehicles-traditional-automotive-giants-vs-disruptive-tech-companies/
Bonges HA, Lusk AC (2016) Addressing electric vehicle (EV) sales and range anxiety through parking layout, policy and regulation. Transp Res Part a: Policy Pract 83:63–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.09.011
Bosshard R, Kolar JW (2016) Inductive power transfer for electric vehicle charging: technical challenges and tradeoffs. IEEE Power Electron Mag 3(3):22–30. https://doi.org/10.1109/MPEL.2016.2583839
Britton J (2021) Electric vehicle overview: electric vehicle software. Perforce Software. https://www.perforce.com/blog/qac/electric-vehicle-software
Brooker AD, Ward J, Wang L (2013) Lightweighting impacts on fuel economy, cost, and component losses. 2013-01-0381. https://doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-0381
Burkacky O, Deichmann J, Paul Stein J (2019) Mapping the automotive software-and-electronics landscape through 2030. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/mapping-the-automotive-software-and-electronics-landscape-through-2030
Burke A, Zhao H (2015) Applications of supercapacitors in electric and hybrid vehicles. University of California, Davis, Institute of Transportation Studies
Business Model Innovation in the EV Ecosystem (2021) International association of exhibitions and events 2021. https://iaee2021online.org/download/contribution/presentation/1299/1299_presentation_20210615_122041.pptx
Career Explorer (2022) The job market for bus drivers in the United States—CareerExplorer. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/bus-driver/job-market/
Center for Climate and Energy Solutions (2021) Global emissions. Global Emissions. https://www.c2es.org/content/international-emissions/
Centobelli P, Cerchione R, Cricelli L, Esposito E, Strazzullo S (2021) The future of sustainable supply chains: a novel tertiary-systematic methodology. Supply Chain Manag 27(6):762–784. https://doi.org/10.1108/SCM-08-2020-0383
Chamernik M (2016) The history of building with wood. Building Design + Construction. http://www.bdcnetwork.com/history-building-wood-infographic
Chan AC-F, Zhou J (2014) Cyber-physical device authentication for the smart grid electric vehicle ecosystem. IEEE J Sel Areas Commun 32(7):1509–1517. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSAC.2014.2332121
Chaudhry SM, Ahmed R, Shafiullah M, Duc Huynh TL (2020) The impact of carbon emissions on country risk: evidence from the G7 economies. J Environ Manag 265:110533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110533
Chen M, Ma X, Chen B, Arsenault R, Karlson P, Simon N, Wang Y (2019) Recycling end-of-life electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries. Joule 3(11):2622–2646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2019.09.014
Cheon IT (2019) On the plug-in electric vehicles effects investigation in electricity marketing. Ann Electr Electron Eng 2(5):6–13. https://doi.org/10.21833/AEEE.2019.05.002
Chinese automaker Changan aims to sell 3 million cars annually in 2025 (2021) https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/chinese-automaker-changan-aims-sell-3-million-cars-annually-2025-2021-08-24/
Circular Cars Initiative (2022) Driving ambitions: the business case for circular economy in the car industry
City of Vancouver (2016) Vancouver’s EV Ecosystem Strategy, p 78. https://vancouver.ca/files/cov/ev-ecosystem-strategy.pdf
Cleary K, Palmer K (2020) Renewables 101: integrating renewable energy resources into the grid
Colmenar-Santos A, Muñoz-Gómez A-M, Rosales-Asensio E, López-Rey Á (2019) Electric vehicle charging strategy to support renewable energy sources in Europe 2050 low-carbon scenario. Energy 183:61–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.06.118
Costa CM, Barbosa JC, Gonçalves R, Castro H, Campo FJD, Lanceros-Méndez S (2021) Recycling and environmental issues of lithium-ion batteries: advances, challenges and opportunities. Energy Storage Mater 37:433–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2021.02.032
Covestro Solutions (2022) Covestro: tough, light materials for EV charging stations. Covestro AG. https://solutions.covestro.com/en/highlights/articles/stories/2020/covestro-tough-lightweight-materials-ev-charging-stations
Cricelli L, Strazzullo S (2021) The economic aspect of digital sustainability: a systematic review. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158241
Czerwinski F (2021) Current trends in automotive lightweighting strategies and materials. Materials 14(21):6631. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216631
Dai Q, Liu J, Wei Q (2019) Optimal photovoltaic/battery energy storage/electric vehicle charging station design based on multi-agent particle swarm optimization algorithm. Sustainability 11(7):1973. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071973
Davies K, Bayram IS, Galloway S (2022) Challenges and opportunities for car retail business in electric vehicle charging ecosystem. In: 2022 3rd International Conference on Smart Grid and Renewable Energy (SGRE), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/SGRE53517.2022.9774055
Delogu M, Zanchi L, Dattilo CA, Pierini M (2017) Innovative composites and hybrid materials for electric vehicles lightweight design in a sustainability perspective. Mater Today Commun 13:192–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2017.09.012
Deveza C (2019) Tesla deploys mobile superchargers using megapacks loaded on trucks. TESMANIAN. https://www.tesmanian.com/blogs/tesmanian-blog/tesla-mobile-superchargers-megapacks
Di Capua G, Sanchez JAA, Cabrera AT, Cabrera DF, Femia N, Petrone G, Spagnuolo G (2015) A losses-based analysis for electric vehicle wireless chargers. In: 2015 International Conference on Synthesis, Modeling, Analysis and Simulation Methods and Applications to Circuit Design (SMACD), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/SMACD.2015.7301677
Difference Between Capacitor and Supercapacitor/Ultra-Capacitor (2019) Electrical technology. https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2019/08/difference-between-capacitor-supercapacitor-ultra-capacitor.html
Dkhili N, Eynard J, Thil S, Grieu S (2020) A survey of modelling and smart management tools for power grids with prolific distributed generation. Sustain Energy, Grids Netw 21:100284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.segan.2019.100284
Dombrowski U, Engel C (2014) Impact of electric mobility on the after sales service in the automotive industry. Procedia CIRP 16:152–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2014.01.022
Eckert N (2022) Toyota executive warns evs face obstacles to wider adoption. WSJ. https://www.wsj.com/articles/toyota-executive-warns-evs-face-obstacles-to-wider-adoption-11660850392
Economic Policy Institute (2021) The shift to all-electric vehicles could create over 150,000 jobs by 2030—If policymakers make smart investments to secure U.S. leadership in the auto sector. Economic Policy Institute. https://www.epi.org/press/the-shift-to-all-electric-vehicles-could-create-over-150000-jobs-by-2030-if-policymakers-make-smart-investments-to-secure-u-s-leadership-in-the-auto-sector/
Edison Electric Institute (2018) EEI Celebrates 1 Million Electric Vehicles on US Roads. https://www.eei.org/resourcesandmedia/newsroom/Pages/Press%20Releases/EEI%20Celebrates%201%20Million%20Electric%20Vehicles%20on%20U-S-%20Roads.aspx
EIA (2021) What is US electricity generation by energy source? https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php
EIA (2022) US. All grades all formulations retail gasoline prices (Dollars per Gallon). https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=pet&s=emm_epm0_pte_nus_dpg&f=m
Ekins P, Domenech T, Drummond P, Bleischwitz R, Hughes N, Lotti L (2020) The circular economy: what, why, how and where. OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/f0c6621f-en
Electrive.com (2022) War in Ukraine halts electric car supply chains. Electrive.Com. https://www.electrive.com/2022/03/01/war-in-ukraine-halts-electric-car-supply-chains/
Ellabban O, Abu-Rub H, Blaabjerg F (2014) Renewable energy resources: current status, future prospects and their enabling technology. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 39:748–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.113
Ellis BL, Nazar LF (2012) Sodium and sodium-ion energy storage batteries. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci 16(4):168–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cossms.2012.04.002
Enerdata (2021) Global energy trends—2021 edition. https://www.enerdata.net/publications/reports-presentations/world-energy-trends.html
Energy.gov (2018) FOTW #1045, September 3, 2018: 77–82% of Energy Put into an Electric Car is Used to Move the Car Down the Road. Energy.Gov. https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/fotw-1045-september-3-2018-77-82-energy-put-electric-car-used-move-car-down
EPA (2022) EPA size class. https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/byclass/2022ClassList.shtml
Europe Commision (2022a) Joint European action for more affordable, secure energy [Text]. European Commission - European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_1511
European Commision (2022b) 2050 long-term strategy. Climate Action. Retrieved April 10, 2022b, from https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/climate-strategies-targets/2050-long-term-strategy_en
EVBox (2021) EVBox and covestro to introduce more sustainable materials into EV charging stations. EVBox Newsroom. https://news.evbox.com/en-WW/205175-evbox-and-covestro-to-introduce-more-sustainable-materials-into-ev-charging-stations
Ewing J (2022) Why Tesla Soared as Other Automakers Struggled to Make Cars. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/08/business/teslas-computer-chips-supply-chain.html
Ewing J, Gandel S (2022) How the war in Ukraine could slow the sales of electric cars. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/18/business/energy-environment/nickel-russia-battery-electric-cars.html
Faias S, Sousa J, Xavier L, Ferreira P (2011) Energy consumption and CO2 emissions evaluation for electric and internal combustion vehicles using a LCA approach. Renew Energy Power Qual J. https://doi.org/10.24084/repqj09.660
Falk RH (2009) Wood as a sustainable building material. For Prod J 59(9):6–12
Faraj S, Jarvenpaa SL, Majchrzak A (2011) Knowledge collaboration in online communities. Organ Sci 22(5):1224–1239
Farfan-Cabrera LI (2019) Tribology of electric vehicles: a review of critical components, current state and future improvement trends. Tribol Int 138:473–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2019.06.029
Faruk O, Tjong J, Sain M (2017) Lightweight and sustainable materials for automotive applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Fathabadi H (2017) Novel grid-connected solar/wind powered electric vehicle charging station with vehicle-to-grid technology. Energy 132:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.04.161
Fedex (2022) Roxo SameDay Delivery Bot. FedEx. Retrieved May 4, 2022, from https://www.fedex.com/en-us/innovation/roxo-delivery-robot.html
Figenbaum E, Kolbenstvedt M (2013) Electromobility in Norway: experiences and opportunities with electric vehicles
Flexer V, Baspineiro CF, Galli CI (2018) Lithium recovery from brines: a vital raw material for green energies with a potential environmental impact in its mining and processing. Sci Total Environ 639:1188–1204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.223
Fortune Business Insights (2022) US Electric Vehicle Market Size, Share & Forecast, 2021–2028. https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/u-s-electric-vehicle-market-106396
Friedrich J, Ge M, Pickens A (2020) This interactive chart shows changes in the world’s top 10 emitters. https://www.wri.org/insights/interactive-chart-shows-changes-worlds-top-10-emitters
Fuels Institute (2021) EV consumer behavior. Fuels Institute, p. 65. https://www.fuelsinstitute.org/Research/Reports/EV-Consumer-Behavior/EV-Consumer-Behavior-Report.pdf
Gaddam RR, Yang D, Narayan R, Raju K, Kumar NA, Zhao XS (2016) Biomass derived carbon nanoparticle as anodes for high performance sodium and lithium ion batteries. Nano Energy 26:346–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.05.047
Gao H, Zhang Y, Meng Y, Liu X, Zhu F (2022) Regeneration of waste LiCoO2 cathode materials with high energy stripping of laser. J Electroanal Chem 908:116100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2022.116100
General Motors (2022a) Committing to an all-electric future | General Motors. Retrieved April 18, 2022a, from https://www.gm.com/content/public/us/en/gm/home/commitments/electrification.html
General Motors (2022b) Ultium battery powered electric vehicles | General Motors. Ultium. https://www.gm.com/content/public/us/en/gm/home/ultium.html
Geotab (2018) What is mobility as a service? Geotab. https://www.geotab.com/blog/what-is-mobility-as-a-service/
GGB (2019) Tribology | The study of interacting surfaces in motion. https://www.ggbearings.com/en/tribou/tribology
Giesecke R (2014) The electric mobility business ecosystem. In: 2014 Ninth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER), 1–13https://doi.org/10.1109/EVER.2014.6844046
Global Data (2022) Tesla and CATL: vertical integration of mining companies to be popular method of avoiding purchasing Chinese EV/battery materials, says GlobalData. GlobalData. https://www.globaldata.com/media/thematic-research/tesla-catl-vertical-integration-mining-companies-popular-method-avoiding-purchasing-chinese-ev-battery-materials-says-globaldata/
Government of Vermont (2022) Zero Emission Vehicles | Department of Environmental Conservation. Retrieved April 28, 2022, from https://dec.vermont.gov/air-quality/mobile-sources/zev
Grand View Research (2021) Lithium-ion battery market size & share report, 2021–2028. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/lithium-ion-battery-market
Guarnieri M (2012) Looking back to electric cars. In: 2012 Third IEEE HISTory of ELectro-Technology CONference (HIS℡CON), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/HIS℡CON.2012.6487583
Hagemann H (2019) Gas station converts to electric charging station and speeds ahead of curve. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2019/10/26/773446805/gas-station-converts-to-electric-charging-station-and-speeds-ahead-of-curve
Hagiu A, Halaburda H (2009) Responding to the Wii? Harvard Business School. https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=36740
Hall D (2020) European electric vehicle factbook 2019/2020. 22
Hampel C (2021) Will the EU set CO2 reduction targets at 60% by 2030? Electrive.Com. https://www.electrive.com/2021/06/18/will-the-eu-set-co2-reduction-targets-at-60-by-2030/
Harvey LDD (2020) Rethinking electric vehicle subsidies, rediscovering energy efficiency. Energy Policy 146:111760–111760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111760
Hayes A (2022) Vertical integration explained: how it works, with types and examples. Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/v/verticalintegration.asp
Heelan J, Gratz E, Zheng Z, Wang Q, Chen M, Apelian D, Wang Y (2016) Current and prospective li-ion battery recycling and recovery processes. JOM 68(10):2632–2638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-016-1994-y
Heldmann S, Nägele F, Richter F (2021) Shaping the future of fast-charging EV infrastructure | McKinsey. https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/operations/our-insights/shaping-the-future-of-fast-charging-ev-infrastructure
Hewitt Studios (2019) K:Port Mobility Hub—Hewitt Studios. https://www.hewittstudios.co.uk/portfolio_page/kport/
Hewitt Studios (2021) About—Hewitt Studios. https://www.hewittstudios.co.uk/about/
Holland G, Bruyère CL (2014) Recent intense hurricane response to global climate change. Clim Dyn 42(3):617–627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-1713-0
Holley P (2019) DC-area gas station shuts off the pumps and goes all-electric. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/09/27/dc-area-service-station-just-became-nations-first-ditch-gasoline-electric-energy-what-happens-next-is-anyones-guess/
Holmberg K, Erdemir A (2019) The impact of tribology on energy use and CO2 emission globally and in combustion engine and electric cars. Tribol Int 135:389–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2019.03.024
Holzman J (2020) ESG issues cast shadow over Tesla supply chain as “Battery Day” approaches. https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/esg-issues-cast-shadow-over-tesla-supply-chain-as-battery-day-approaches-60288779
Horn M, MacLeod J, Liu M, Webb J, Motta N (2019) Supercapacitors: a new source of power for electric cars? Econ Anal Policy 61:93–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2018.08.003
Hou X, Wang J, Huang T, Wang T, Wang P (2019) Smart home energy management optimization method considering energy storage and electric vehicle. IEEE Access 7:144010–144020. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2944878
Hou R, Lei L, Jin K, Lin X, Xiao L (2022) Introducing electric vehicles? impact of network effect on profits and social welfare. Energy 243:123002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.123002
Hu X, Xu L, Lin X, Pecht M (2020) Battery lifetime prognostics. Joule 4(2):310–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2019.11.018
Hua Y, Zhou S, Huang Y, Liu X, Ling H, Zhou X, Zhang C, Yang S (2020) Sustainable value chain of retired lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles. J Power Sourc 478:228753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228753
Huang Y, Kockelman KM (2020) Electric vehicle charging station locations: elastic demand, station congestion, and network equilibrium. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ 78:102179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2019.11.008
Huang Z, Xie Z, Zhang C, Chan SH, Milewski J, Xie Y, Yang Y, Hu X (2019) Modeling and multi-objective optimization of a stand-alone PV-hydrogen-retired EV battery hybrid energy system. Energy Convers Manag 181:80–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.11.079
Idaho National Laboratory (2022) History of electric cars. https://avt.inl.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/fsev/HistoryOfElectricCars.pdf
IEA (2021a) Global EV outlook 2021a, p 101
IEA (2021b) Renewables are stronger than ever as they power through the pandemic—news. IEA. https://www.iea.org/news/renewables-are-stronger-than-ever-as-they-power-through-the-pandemic
IEA (2022) Renewable electricity generation increase by technology, country and region, 2020–2021—charts—data & statistics. IEA. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/renewable-electricity-generation-increase-by-technology-country-and-region-2020-2021
IEEE (2019) The smart grid and renewable energy. IEEE Innovation at Work. https://innovationatwork.ieee.org/smart-grid-transforming-renewable-energy/
Institute for Energy Research (2020) The environmental impact of lithium batteries. IER. https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/the-environmental-impact-of-lithium-batteries/
International Trade Administration (2021a) Japan transition to electric vehicles. https://www.trade.gov/market-intelligence/japan-transition-electric-vehicles
International Trade Administration (2021b) United Kingdom—electric vehicles/autonomous technologies. https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/united-kingdom-electric-vehiclesautonomous-technologies
IRS (2022) Credits for new clean vehicles purchased in 2023 or after | Internal Revenue Service. https://www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/credits-for-new-clean-vehicles-purchased-in-2023-or-after
Ito K (2014) Do consumers respond to marginal or average price? Evidence from nonlinear electricity pricing. Am Econ Rev 104(2):537–563. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.2.537
Jacobides MG, Cennamo C, Gawer A (2018) Towards a theory of ecosystems. Strateg Manag J 39(8):2255–2276. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2904
Jiang F, Li T, Li Y, Zhang Y, Gong A, Dai J, Hitz E, Luo W, Hu L (2018) Wood-based nanotechnologies toward sustainability. Adv Mater 30(1):1703453. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201703453
Jin H (2022) Analysis: Ukraine invasion sets back Musk’s dream for cheaper EVs, for now. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/technology/ukraine-invasion-sets-back-musks-dream-cheaper-evs-now-2022-03-07/
Jones P (2022a) How much do electric car batteries cost? (10 examples). https://motorandwheels.com/how-much-do-electric-car-batteries-cost/
Jones S (2022b) Oil giant Shell turned an old gas station into an EV-only charging hub with free WiFi and solar panels in its timber canopies. Take a look around. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/shell-gas-station-electric-vehicle-charging-hub-london-uk-202.2-2
Ju F, Li J, Xiao G, Huang N, Biller S (2014) A quality flow model in battery manufacturing systems for electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Autom Sci Eng 11(1):230–244. https://doi.org/10.1109/TASE.2013.2237765
Kane M (2022) BYD Sets Target To Sell Up To 1.2 Million NEVs In 2022. https://insideevs.com/news/558137/byd-target-nev-sales-2022/
Kapustin NO, Grushevenko DA (2020) Long-term electric vehicles outlook and their potential impact on electric grid. Energy Policy 137:111103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111103
Kim HC, Wallington TJ (2016) Life cycle assessment of vehicle lightweighting: a physics-based model to estimate use-phase fuel consumption of electrified vehicles. Environ Sci Technol 50(20):11226–11233. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b02059
Kim S-W, Seo D-H, Ma X, Ceder G, Kang K (2012) Electrode materials for rechargeable sodium-ion batteries: potential alternatives to current lithium-ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater 2(7):710–721. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201200026
Kim H-J, Krishna T, Zeb K, Rajangam V, Gopi CVVM, Sambasivam S, Raghavendra KVG, Obaidat IM (2020) A comprehensive review of Li-ion battery materials and their recycling techniques. Electronics 9(7):1161. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics9071161
Klein R, Chaturvedi NA, Christensen J, Ahmed J, Findeisen R, Kojic A (2011) Optimal charging strategies in lithium-ion battery. In: Proceedings of the 2011 American Control Conference, pp 382–387. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACC.2011.5991497
Ku A (2015) EVs to reduce dependence on imported oil: challenges and lessons from maui. In: Beeton D, Meyer G (eds) Electric vehicle business models. Springer International Publishing, pp 229–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12244-1_14
Lambert F (2018) NIO is courting Tesla owners with mobile charging stations inside electric vans. Electrek. https://electrek.co/2018/07/26/nio-courting-tesla-owners-mobile-charging-stations-electric-vans/
Lambert F (2021) Toyota teases electric pickup truck in new battery-electric vehicle plan. Electrek. https://electrek.co/2021/12/14/toyota-teases-electric-pickup-truck-new-battery-electric-vehicle-plan/
Lambert F (2022a) Tesla expands Gigafactory Nevada solar array toward goal to become world’s biggest. Electrek. https://electrek.co/202.2/01/13/tesla-expands-gigafactory-nevada-solar-array-worlds-biggest/
Lambert F (2022b) Tesla needs to deliver on promise to deploy solar and batteries at Supercharger stations. Electrek. https://electrek.co/202.2/05/30/tesla-promise-deploy-solar-batteries-supercharger-stations/
Lee JH, Chakraborty D, Hardman SJ, Tal G (2020) Exploring electric vehicle charging patterns: mixed usage of charging infrastructure. Transp Res Part D Transp Environ 79:102249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102249
Levering GT, Casaletto TJ, Baumgartner KJ (2021) Electric utilities and the energy transition | John Hancock Investment Mgmt. John Hancock Investment Mgmt | A Better Way to Invest. https://www.jhinvestments.com/viewpoints/alternatives/power-move-why-electric-utilities-may-be-the-key-to-the-energy-transition
Levinson RS, West TH (2018) Impact of public electric vehicle charging infrastructure. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ 64:158–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.10.006
Li X, Hui D, Lai X (2013) Battery energy storage station (BESS)-based smoothing control of photovoltaic (PV) and wind power generation fluctuations. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 4(2):464–473. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSTE.2013.2247428
Li L, Fan E, Guan Y, Zhang X, Xue Q, Wei L, Wu F, Chen R (2017) Sustainable recovery of cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries using lactic acid leaching system. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 5(6):5224–5233. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b00571
Li Z, Khajepour A, Song J (2019) A comprehensive review of the key technologies for pure electric vehicles. Energy 182:824–839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.06.077
Liu L (2020) Life cycle assessment of a lithium-ion battery pack for energy storage systems:-the environmental impact of a grid-connected battery energy storage system. Uppsala University
Liu L, Kong F, Liu X, Peng Y, Wang Q (2015) A review on electric vehicles interacting with renewable energy in smart grid. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 51:648–661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.06.036
Liu T, Wang B, Gu X, Wang L, Ling M, Liu G, Wang D, Zhang S (2016) All-climate sodium ion batteries based on the NASICON electrode materials. Nano Energy 30:756–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.09.024
Lu C, Rong K, You J, Shi Y (2014) Business ecosystem and stakeholders’ role transformation: evidence from Chinese emerging electric vehicle industry. Expert Syst Appl 41(10):4579–4595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2014.01.026
Lucid Motors (2021) An absolute triumph of efficiency, Lucid Air achieves 520 miles of range. https://www.lucidmotors.com/stories/lucid-air-achieves-520-miles-of-range
Lukic S, Pantic Z (2013) Cutting the cord: static and dynamic inductive wireless charging of electric vehicles. IEEE Electrif Mag 1(1):57–64. https://doi.org/10.1109/MELE.2013.2273228
Luna-Lama F, Rodríguez-Padrón D, Puente-Santiago AR, Muñoz-Batista MJ, Caballero A, Balu AM, Romero AA, Luque R (2019) Non-porous carbonaceous materials derived from coffee waste grounds as highly sustainable anodes for lithium-ion batteries. J Clean Prod 207:411–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.024
Lutgens FK, Tarbuck EJ (2011) Foundations of earth science. Pearson, Upper Saddle River
Lyu H, Sun X-G, Dai S (2021) Organic cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries: past, present, and future. Adv Energy Sustain Res 2(1):2000044. https://doi.org/10.1002/aesr.202000044
Ma Z, Christensen K, Jørgensen BN (2021) Business ecosystem architecture development: a case study of electric vehicle home charging. Energy Inform 4(1):9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42162-021-00142-y
Machura P, Li Q (2019) A critical review on wireless charging for electric vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 104:209–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.027
Mahdavifar V (2017) Cyclic performance of connections used in hybrid cross-laminated timber. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.21842.15049
Mak H-Y, Rong Y, Shen Z-JM (2013) Infrastructure planning for electric vehicles with battery swapping. Manag Sci 59(7):1557–1575. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.1120.1672
Malmgren I (2016) Quantifying the societal benefits of electric vehicles. World Electric Veh J 8(4):996–1007. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj8040996
Malone D (2016) Anders Berensson Architects designs 40-story wooden skyscraper for Stockholm. Building Design + Construction. http://www.bdcnetwork.com/anders-berensson-architects-designs-40-story-wooden-skyscraper-stockholm
Manoharan Y, Hosseini SE, Butler B, Alzhahrani H, Senior BTF, Ashuri T, Krohn J (2019) Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles current status and future prospect. Appl Sci. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9112296
Mark K (2021) Electric car price comparison for US: cheapest to most expensive. InsideEVs. https://insideevs.com/news/534027/electric-car-prices-us-20210918/
Market Research Future (2021) Lightweight materials market size to reach USD 276.50 Billion by 2027 at 8.2% CAGR - Report by Market Research Future (MRFR). GlobeNewswire News Room. https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/06/22/2251220/0/en/Lightweight-Materials-Market-Size-to-Reach-USD-276-50-Billion-by-2027-at-8-2-CAGR-Report-by-Market-Research-Future-MRFR.html
Markets and Markets (2021) Smart grid market size, share, industry analysis to 2026. https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/smart-grid-market-208777577.html?utm_source=Linkedin&utm_medium=NL
Marshall A (2022) Uber gives up on the self-driving dream. Wired. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://www.wired.com/story/uber-gives-up-self-driving-dream/
Martinsen T (2016) A business model for an EV charging station with battery energy storage. In: CIRED Workshop 2016, 205 (4) https://doi.org/10.1049/cp.2016.0805
Mead I (2017) International Energy Outlook 2017. https://www.eia.gov/pressroom/presentations/mead_91417.pdf
Mehrjerdi H (2019) Off-grid solar powered charging station for electric and hydrogen vehicles including fuel cell and hydrogen storage. Int J Hydrogen Energy 44(23):11574–11583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.158
Mehrjerdi H, Hemmati R (2019) Electric vehicle charging station with multilevel charging infrastructure and hybrid solar-battery-diesel generation incorporating comfort of drivers. J Energy Storage 26:100924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2019.100924
Mercedez-Benz (2021) Mercedes-Benz prepares to go all-electric. MBUSA Newsroom. http://media.mbusa.com/releases/mercedes-benz-prepares-to-go-all-electric
Mersky AC, Sprei F, Samaras C, Qian (Sean) Z (2016) Effectiveness of incentives on electric vehicle adoption in Norway. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ 46:56–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2016.03.011
Meticulous Market Research (2021) Electric vehicle (EV) charging station raw materials market worth $4.91 Billion by 2028—Exclusive Report by Meticulous Research®. GlobeNewswire News Room. https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news-release/2021/07/14/2262653/0/en/Electric-Vehicle-EV-Charging-Station-Raw-Materials-Market-Worth-4-91-Billion-by-2028-Exclusive-Report-by-Meticulous-Research.html
Molliere M (2022) CO2 targets propel Europe to 1st place in emobility race, p 16. https://www.transportenvironment.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/2020%20EV%20sales%20briefing.pdf
Moradi B, Botte GG (2016) Recycling of graphite anodes for the next generation of lithium ion batteries. J Appl Electrochem 46(2):123–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-015-0914-0
Murdock BE, Toghill KE, Tapia-Ruiz N (2021) A perspective on the sustainability of cathode materials used in lithium-ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater 11(39):2102028. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202102028
Mwasilu F, Justo JJ, Kim E-K, Do TD, Jung J-W (2014) Electric vehicles and smart grid interaction: a review on vehicle to grid and renewable energy sources integration. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 34:501–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.03.031
Nature (2021) Lithium-ion batteries need to be greener and more ethical. Nature 595(7865):7–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-01735-z
Nelson PA, Gallagher KG, Bloom ID, Dees DW (2012) Modeling the performance and cost of lithium-ion batteries for electric-drive vehicles—SECOND EDITION (ANL-12/55). Argonne National Lab. (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States). https://doi.org/10.2172/1209682
Nieuwenhuis P (2018) Alternative business models and entrepreneurship: the case of electric vehicles. Int J Entrep Innov 19(1):33–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1465750317752885
NIO Inc (2022) NIO Power. Retrieved May 4, 2022, from https://www.nio.com/nio-power
Nissan (2011) Nissan LEAF brings eco-friendly tourism to Okinawa. Official Global Newsroom. https://global.nissannews.com/en/releases/110201-01-e
Noel L, Sovacool BK (2016) Why did better place fail?: Range anxiety, interpretive flexibility, and electric vehicle promotion in Denmark and Israel. Energy Policy 94:377–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.04.029
Nordhaus WD (2017) Revisiting the social cost of carbon. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114(7):1518–1523. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1609244114
Norwegian Road Federation (2022) 2021 was the all-time record year for new car registrations. Road Traffic Information Council. https://ofv.no/aktuelt/2022/2021-ble-tidens-rekordår-for-nybilregistreringer
NREL (2022) NREL’s home energy management system—foresee. Retrieved December 29, 2022, from https://www.nrel.gov/buildings/foresee.html
Nykvist B, Nilsson M (2015) Rapidly falling costs of battery packs for electric vehicles. Nat Clim Change 5(4):329–332. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2564
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (2022) Lightweight Materials for Cars and Trucks. Energy.Gov. Retrieved April 13, 2022, from https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/lightweight-materials-cars-and-trucks
Oliveira L, Messagie M, Rangaraju S, Sanfelix J, Hernandez Rivas M, Van Mierlo J (2015) Key issues of lithium-ion batteries—from resource depletion to environmental performance indicators. J Clean Prod 108:354–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.021
Ordoñez J, Gago EJ, Girard A (2016) Processes and technologies for the recycling and recovery of spent lithium-ion batteries. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 60(C):195–205
Ou S, Hao X, Lin Z, Wang H, Bouchard J, He X, Przesmitzki S, Wu Z, Zheng J, Lv R, Qi L, LaClair TJ (2019) Light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in China: an overview on the market and its comparisons to the United States. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 112:747–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.06.021
Paltsev S, Henry Chen Y-H, Karplus V, Kishimoto P, Reilly J, Löschel A, von Graevenitz K, Koesler S (2018) Reducing CO2 from cars in the European Union. Transportation 45(2):573–595. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-016-9741-3
Panchal C, Stegen S, Lu J (2018) Review of static and dynamic wireless electric vehicle charging system. Eng Sci Technol 21(5):922–937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2018.06.015
Pangarkar T (2021) Can EV automotive newcomer rivian really trump giant tesla... Market Scoop. https://scoop.market.us/can-ev-automotive-newcomer-rivian-really-trump-giant-tesla/
Paoli L, Gül T (2022) Electric cars fend off supply challenges to more than double global sales. IEA. https://www.iea.org/commentaries/electric-cars-fend-off-supply-challenges-to-more-than-double-global-sales
Pardo-Bosch F, Pujadas P, Morton C, Cervera C (2021) Sustainable deployment of an electric vehicle public charging infrastructure network from a city business model perspective. Sustain Cit Soc 71:102957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.102957
Patel P (2021) Sodium-ion batteries poised to pick off large-scale lithium-ion applications. IEEE Spectrum. https://spectrum.ieee.org/sodium-ion-battery
PBS News Hour (2011) Get to Know Tepco: Japan’s Biggest Power Company. PBS NewsHour. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/get-to-know-tepco-japans-biggest-power-company
Peters J, Buchholz D, Passerini S, Weil M (2016) Life cycle assessment of sodium-ion batteries. Energy Environ Sci 9(5):1744–1751. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EE00640J
Peters J, Peña Cruz A, Weil M (2019) Exploring the economic potential of sodium-ion batteries. Batteries 5(1):10. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5010010
Pipitone E, Caltabellotta S, Occhipinti L (2021) A life cycle environmental impact comparison between traditional, hybrid, and electric vehicles in the european context. Sustainability 13(19):10992. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910992
Plötz P, Dütschke E (2020) Electric vehicle adoption in germany: current knowledge and future research. In: Contestabile M, Tal G, Turrentine T (eds) Who’s driving electric cars. Springer International Publishing, pp 189–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38382-4_10
Plug In America (2022) Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) EV incentives, explained. https://pluginamerica.org/why-go-plug-in/state-federal-incentives/inflation-reduction-act-ira-ev-incentives-explained/
Podder A, Grover R (2019) How electric cars can become truly ‘green’, once and for all. Science in the News. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2019/how-electric-cars-can-become-truly-green-once-and-for-all/
PowerfulJRE (2019) Joe Rogan Experience #1245—Andrew Yang. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cTsEzmFamZ8
Putnam Investments (2021) Investors tap into new opportunities as EV sales surge. Putnam Investments. https://www.putnam.com/individual/content/perspectives/8351-investors-tap-into-new-opportunities-as-ev-sales-surge
Ramey J (2022a) Shell station converted to EV charging in a glimpse of the future. Autoweek. https://www.autoweek.com/news/green-cars/a38802959/shell-ev-charging-station-uk/
Ramey J (2022b) Nio is on a battery swap station building spree. Autoweek. https://www.autoweek.com/news/green-cars/a38940983/nio-building-ev-battery-swap-stations/
Ravenscroft T (2020) Cobe unveils pair of tree-like timber charging stations for electric cars. Dezeen. https://www.dezeen.com/2020/09/09/cobe-charging-stations-electric-cars-fredericia-knudshove/
Reinhardt R, Christodoulou I, Gassó-Domingo S, Amante García B (2019) Towards sustainable business models for electric vehicle battery second use: a critical review. J Environ Manag 245:432–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.05.095
Reinhardt R, Christodoulou I, García BA, Gassó-Domingo S (2020) Sustainable business model archetypes for the electric vehicle battery second use industry: towards a conceptual framework. J Clean Prod 254:119994. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.119994
Rennert K, Prest BC, Pizer WA, Newell RG, Anthoff D, Kingdon C, Rennels L, Cooke R, Raftery AE, Ševčíková H, Errickson F (2021) The social cost of carbon: advances in long-term probabilistic projections of population, GDP, emissions, and discount rates. 54
Reuters (2018) Audi eyes 800,000 electric and hybrid car sales in 2025. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-audi-electric-idUSKBN1I92HJ
Reuters (2021) BMW hits 1 mln EV sales, targets 2 mln fully electric sales by 2025. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/bmw-hits-one-million-ev-sales-targeting-two-million-by-2025-2021-12-07/
Richter F (2021a) Who leads the charge towards electric mobility? Statista infographics. https://www.statista.com/chart/13143/electric-vehicle-sales/
Richter F (2021b) Tesla, rivian and lucid: the big bet on electric mobility. Statista infographics. https://www.statista.com/chart/26205/market-cap-and-deliveries-of-electric-car-makers-vs-traditional-auto-companies/
Saele H, Petersen I (2018) Electric vehicles in Norway and the potential for demand response. In: 2018 53rd International Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC), pp 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/UPEC.2018.8541926
Salisbury M (2014) Economic and air quality benefits of electric vehicles in Nevada, p 20
Sarafin G (2021) What business ecosystem means and why it matters. https://www.ey.com/en_us/alliances/what-business-ecosystem-means-and-why-it-matters
Shan Y, Huang Q, Guan D, Hubacek K (2020) China CO2 emission accounts 2016–2017. Sci Data 7(1):54. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-0393-y
Shang T, Shi Y (2012) Deconstructing emerging business ecosystems: explorations of the chinese electric vehicle industry. In: 2012 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, pp 573–577 https://doi.org/10.1109/IEEM.2012.6837804
Shareef H, Islam MdM, Mohamed A (2016) A review of the stage-of-the-art charging technologies, placement methodologies, and impacts of electric vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 64:403–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.06.033
Shell Global (2022) Electric vehicle charging. Retrieved March 21, 2022, from https://www.shell.com/energy-and-innovation/new-energies/electric-vehicle-charging.html
Shirouzu N (2022) Exclusive: Toyota scrambles for EV reboot with eye on Tesla. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/exclusive-toyota-scrambles-ev-reboot-with-eye-tesla-2022-10-24/
Shukla A, Pekny J, Venkatasubramanian V (2011) An optimization framework for cost effective design of refueling station infrastructure for alternative fuel vehicles. Comput Chem Eng 35(8):1431–1438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compchemeng.2011.03.018
Singh C (2022) Volkswagen could be Tesla’s greatest competition in 2022. MotorBiscuit. https://www.motorbiscuit.com/volkswagen-teslas-greatest-competition-2022/
Situ L (2009) Electric vehicle development: the past, present amp; future. In: 2009 3rd International Conference on Power Electronics Systems and Applications (PESA), 1–3.
Slowik P, Lutsey N (2023) Expanding the electric vehicle market in US cities. 45
Smart JG, Salisbury SD (2015) Plugged In: How Americans Charge Their Electric Vehicles (INL/EXT—15-35584, 1369632; p. INL/EXT—15-35584, 1369632). https://doi.org/10.2172/1369632
Smart grids: Electricity networks and the grid in evolution (2022) I-SCOOP. Retrieved May 5, 2022, from https://www.i-scoop.eu/industry-4-0/smart-grids-electrical-grid/
SmartGrid.gov (2019) Smart Grid: The Smart Grid | SmartGrid.gov. https://www.smartgrid.gov/the_smart_grid/smart_grid.html
Smith M, Castellano J (2015) Costs associated with non-residential electric vehicle supply equipment: factors to consider in the implementation of electric vehicle charging stations
Soares J, Ghazvini MAF, Borges N, Vale Z (2017) Dynamic electricity pricing for electric vehicles using stochastic programming. Energy 122:111–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.12.108
Song M, Peng J, Wang J, Dong L (2018) Better resource management: an improved resource and environmental efficiency evaluation approach that considers undesirable outputs. Resour Conserv Recycl 128:197–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.08.015
Stasha S (2022) How many trucking companies are in the US | Policy Advice. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://policyadvice.net/insurance/insights/how-many-trucking-companies-in-the-us/
State of California (2022) New report on september heat wave details California’s action to meet historic challenges to power grid. California Governor. https://www.gov.ca.gov/2022/11/02/new-report-on-september-heat-wave-details-californias-action-to-meet-historic-challenges-to-power-grid/
Statista (2022) Worldwide electric vehicle sales by model 2021. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/960121/sales-of-all-electric-vehicles-worldwide-by-model/
Stegen S, Panchal C, Leskarac D, Lu J (2015) PEV charging technologies and V2G on distributed systems and utility interfaces. In: Lu J, Hossain J (eds) Vehicle-to-grid: linking electric vehicles to the smart grid. Institution of Engineering and Technology, pp 157–222. https://doi.org/10.1049/PBPO079E_ch6
Steiner S, Bisig C, Petri-Fink A, Rothen-Rutishauser B (2016) Diesel exhaust: current knowledge of adverse effects and underlying cellular mechanisms. Arch Toxicol 90(7):1541–1553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1736-5
Stinson J (2019) Amazon buys 100,000 electric vans from Rivian for Prime deliveries. Transport topics
Strickland J (2019) Why did better place fail and tesla succeed? The Startup. https://medium.com/swlh/why-did-better-place-fail-and-tesla-succeed-711be0a40ba5
SUNY Buffalo State College (2022) Electrical Engineering Technology, Smart Grid | SUNY Buffalo State College. Retrieved May 5, 2022, from https://newsandevents.buffalostate.edu/programs/electrical-engineering-technology-smart-grid
Sydbom A, Blomberg A, Parnia S, Stenfors N, Sandström T, Dahlén S-E (2001) Health effects of diesel exhaust emissions. Eur Respir J 17(4):733–746
Taylor C (2021) Volkswagen wants half of its vehicle sales to be electric by 2030. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/13/volkswagen-wants-half-of-its-vehicle-sales-to-be-electric-by-2030.html
Taylor SR, McLennan SM (1985) The continental crust: its composition and evolution (Vol. 122). https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0016756800032167/type/journal_article
Temporelli A, Carvalho ML, Girardi P (2020) Life cycle assessment of electric vehicle batteries: an overview of recent literature. Energies 13(11):2864. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13112864
Tengö M, Brondizio ES, Elmqvist T, Malmer P, Spierenburg M (2014) Connecting diverse knowledge systems for enhanced ecosystem governance: the multiple evidence base approach. Ambio 43(5):579–591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0501-3
The Economist (2016) An increasingly precious metal. The Economist. https://www.economist.com/business/2016/01/14/an-increasingly-precious-metal
Think Wood (2022) Is wood a sustainable material? Think Wood. https://www.thinkwood.com/sustainability
Tran M-K, DaCosta A, Mevawalla A, Panchal S, Fowler M (2021) Comparative study of equivalent circuit models performance in four common lithium-ion batteries: LFP, NMC, LMO, NCA. Batteries. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030051
US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2022) Delivery truck drivers and driver/sales workers. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/transportation-and-material-moving/delivery-truck-drivers-and-driver-sales-workers.htm
Uber (2022) Uber green—sustainable rides in electric or hybrid vehicles on uber. Uber. https://www.uber.com/us/en/ride/ubergreen/
Ulrich L (2021) The top 10 EV battery makers. IEEE Spectrum. https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-top-10-ev-battery-makers
United Kingdom DOT (2022) UK electric vehicle infrastructure strategy. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-electric-vehicle-infrastructure-strategy
University S (2021) Professors explain the social cost of carbon. Stanford News. https://news.stanford.edu/2021/06/07/professors-explain-social-cost-carbon/
Un-Noor F, Padmanaban S, Mihet-Popa L, Mollah M, Hossain E (2017) A comprehensive study of key electric vehicle (EV) components, technologies, challenges, impacts, and future direction of development. Energies 10(8):1217. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10081217
US DOT (2022) President Biden, USDOT and USDOE Announce $5 Billion over Five Years for National EV Charging Network, Made Possible by Bipartisan Infrastructure Law | FHWA. https://highways.dot.gov/newsroom/president-biden-usdot-and-usdoe-announce-5-billion-over-five-years-national-ev-charging
US EPA O (2015a) Centralized generation of electricity and its impacts on the environment [Overviews and Factsheets]. https://www.epa.gov/energy/centralized-generation-electricity-and-its-impacts-environment
US EPA O (2015b) Sources of greenhouse gas emissions [overviews and factsheets]. https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions
US EPA O (2016a) Climate change science [collections and lists]. https://www.epa.gov/climatechange-science
US EPA O (2016b) Health and environmental effects of particulate matter (PM) [overviews and factsheets]. https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/health-and-environmental-effects-particulate-matter-pm
US EPA O (2022) The social cost of carbon [Reports and Assessments]. Retrieved May 4, 2022, from https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climatechange/social-cost-carbon
USGS (2022) Mineral commodity summaries 2022—lithium. https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-lithium.pdf
Valero A, Valero A (2019) Thermodynamic rarity and recyclability of raw materials in the energy transition: the need for an in-spiral economy. Entropy 21:873. https://doi.org/10.3390/e21090873
Valta J, Mäkinen S, Kotilainen K, Rautiainen A, Järventausta P (2018) Comparison of innovation policies for electric vehicle business ecosystems. In: 2018 15th International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/EEM.2018.8469785
Van Gerwen R, Jaarsma S, Wilhite R (2006) Smart metering. Leonardo-Energy.Org, 9
Venkateswaran V, Nair S, Ramachandran S (2021) An ecosystem approach for EV adoption, p 10
Visual Capitalist (2022) Lithium production by country (1995–2020). Visual Capitalist. https://www.visualcapitalist.com/charted-lithium-production-by-country-1995-2020/
Vohra K, Vodonos A, Schwartz J, Marais EA, Sulprizio MP, Mickley LJ (2021) Global mortality from outdoor fine particle pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion: results from GEOS-Chem. Environ Res 195:110754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.110754
Wagner F, Roberts D, Francfort J, White S (2016) Drive electric vermont case study. Idaho National Lab.(INL), Idaho Falls
Wallbox (2020) EV and EV charging incentives in Germany: a complete guide. EVOLVE. https://blog.wallbox.com/en/the-ultimate-guide-to-ev-incentives-in-germany/
Walter K, Higgins T, Bhattacharyya B, Wall M, Cliffton R (2020) Electric vehicles should be a win for American Workers. Center for American Progress, p 37. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/electric-vehicles-win-american-workers/
Wang C, He F, Lin X, Shen Z-JM, Li M (2019) Designing locations and capacities for charging stations to support intercity travel of electric vehicles: an expanded network approach. Transp Res Part C: Emerg Technol 102:210–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2019.03.013
Wang Q, Feng H, Feng H, Yu Y, Li J, Ning E (2021a) The impacts of road traffic on urban air quality in Jinan based GWR and remote sensing. Sci Rep 11(1):15512. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94159-8
Wang X, Huang L, Daim T, Li X, Li Z (2021b) Evaluation of China’s new energy vehicle policy texts with quantitative and qualitative analysis. Technol Soc 67:101770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101770
Wanger TC (2011) The lithium future—resources, recycling, and the environment. Conserv Lett 4(3):202–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2011.00166.x
Wappelhorst S, Cui H (2020) Growing momentum: global overview of government targets for phasing out sales of new internal combustion engine vehicles. International Council on Clean Transportation. https://theicct.org/growing-momentum-global-overview-of-government-targets-for-phasing-out-sales-of-new-internal-combustion-engine-vehicles/
Wareham J, Fox PB, Cano Giner JL (2014) Technology ecosystem governance. Organ Sci 25(4):1195–1215. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2014.0895
Wee S, Coffman M, Allen S (2020) EV driver characteristics: evidence from Hawaii. Transp Policy 87:33–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.12.006
Weiller C, Neely A (2015) Business models for electric vehicles: lessons from the Japanese EV ecosystem. In: Beeton D, Meyer G (eds) Electric vehicle business models. Springer International Publishing, pp 197–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12244-1_12
Wesseling JH, Niesten EMMI, Faber J, Hekkert MP (2015) Business strategies of incumbents in the market for electric vehicles: opportunities and incentives for sustainable innovation. Bus Strateg Environ 24(6):518–531. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.1834
White A (2022) 12 bestselling electric vehicles of 2021. Car and driver. https://www.caranddriver.com/features/g36278968/best-selling-evs-of-2021/
whitehouse.gov (2022) President Biden’s Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. Whitehouse.Gov. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/
Wilkes W (2021) Daimler Board Endorses $68 Billion Spending Plan for Mercedes—Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-12-02/daimler-board-endorses-68-billion-spending-plan-for-mercedes
Wood E, Alexander M, Bradley TH (2011) Investigation of battery end-of-life conditions for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. J Power Sources 196(11):5147–5154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.02.025
Woodard AC, Milner HR (2016) Sustainability of timber and wood in construction. Sustainability of construction materials. Elsevier, pp 129–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100370-1.00007-X
Xiang J, Lv W, Mu C, Zhao J, Wang B (2017) Activated hard carbon from orange peel for lithium/sodium ion battery anode with long cycle life. J Alloy Compd 701:870–874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.01.206
XPENG (2023) XPENG—Official Website | XPENG Motors—XPENG (Global). Retrieved February 14, 2023, from https://heyxpeng.com/intelligent/xpilot?parentId=4
Yong JY, Ramachandaramurthy VK, Tan KM, Mithulananthan N (2015) A review on the state-of-the-art technologies of electric vehicle, its impacts and prospects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 49:365–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.130
Yu X, Zhang K, Tian N, Qin A, Liao L, Du R, Wei C (2015) Biomass carbon derived from sisal fiber as anode material for lithium-ion batteries. Mater Lett 142:193–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2014.11.160
Yu K, Wang J, Wang X, Liang J, Liang C (2020) Sustainable application of biomass by-products: corn straw-derived porous carbon nanospheres using as anode materials for lithium ion batteries. Mater Chem Phys 243:122644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2020.122644
Zablocki A (2019) Fact sheet | Energy Storage (2019) | White Papers | EESI. https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/energy-storage-2019
Zandi H, Kuruganti T, Vineyard EA, Fugate D (2018) Home energy management systems: an overview
Zarazua de Rubens G, Noel L, Kester J, Sovacool BK (2020) The market case for electric mobility: investigating electric vehicle business models for mass adoption. Energy 194:116841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116841
Zhang W-J (2011) A review of the electrochemical performance of alloy anodes for lithium-ion batteries. J Power Sources 196(1):13–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.07.020
Zhang P (2022) SAIC-GM-Wuling aims for 1 million annual NEV sales by 2023. CnEVPost. https://cnevpost.com/2022/03/09/saic-gm-wuling-aims-for-1-million-annual-nev-sales-by-2023/
Zhang L, Qin Q (2018) China’s new energy vehicle policies: evolution, comparison and recommendation. Transp Res Part a: Policy Pract 110:57–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2018.02.012
Zhang X, Rao R, Xie J, Liang Y (2014) The current dilemma and future path of China’s electric vehicles. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6031567
Zhang T, Pota H, Chu C-C, Gadh R (2018) Real-time renewable energy incentive system for electric vehicles using prioritization and cryptocurrency. Appl Energy 226:582–594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.06.025
Zhang X, Huang Q, Zhang M, Li M, Hu J, Yuan G (2020a) Pine wood-derived hollow carbon fibers@NiO@rGO hybrids as sustainable anodes for lithium-ion batteries. J Alloys Comp 822:153718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.153718
Zhang Z, Yu M, Yang B, Jin C, Guo G, Qiu J (2020b) Regeneration of Al-doped LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode material via a sustainable method from spent Li-ion batteries. Mater Res Bull 126:110855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2020.110855
Zhao F, Li D, Cao B, Liu M, Chen K, Chen Y (2017) Hierarchical carbon microstructures prepared from oil-palm-shell tracheids for Li–S batteries. New J Chem 41(10):4110–4115. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6NJ03910C
Zhou K, Cheng L, Lu X, Wen L (2020) Scheduling model of electric vehicles charging considering inconvenience and dynamic electricity prices. Appl Energy 276:115455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115455
Acknowledgements
The author(s) have no acknowledgment to declare.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The manuscript was written through the contributions of all authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript. All authors contributed equally.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethical approval
This manuscript is the author(s) own authentic creation, and this is the manuscript's sole publication.
Consent for publication
The author(s) give full consent for this publication of identifiable details, which can include images, graphs, and charts (“Material”) for publication in the above Journal.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Agbesi, P.K., Ruffino, R. & Hakovirta, M. The development of sustainable electric vehicle business ecosystems. SN Bus Econ 3, 143 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-023-00486-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-023-00486-5
Keywords
- Electric vehicle business ecosystem
- Electric vehicles
- Electric vehicle charging stations
- Sustainable materials
- Battery swapping
- Cross-laminated timber