Abstract
Groundwater is a critical water source supporting over 2.5 billion people globally and accounting for 43% of water used for irrigation worldwide. In this study, the suitability of groundwater quality in Kigamboni, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania for drinking and irrigation purposes was assessed. Groundwater samples were collected from 25 boreholes and analyzed for physical chemical, and bacteriological parameters. Water quality index (WQI), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), percentage of sodium (Na %), magnesium hazard (MH) and permeability index (PI) were used to evaluate groundwater suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes. Also, Pearson correlation coefficient, Piper diagram, Multivariate analysis were used to assess the groundwater quality. Results indicated that groundwater in the study area is characterized by concentration of cations in the order of Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ and anions Cl− > CO32− > HCO3− > SO42−. Groundwater in the study area is predominantly characterized by Na–K–Cl water type signifying influence of seawater intrusion. Furthermore, 44% and 12% of the groundwater samples were considered unsafe for drinking and irrigation purposes, respectively. This study recommends that groundwater in the study area can be used for drinking purposes with minimal treatment at household level and be used for irrigation purposes to support plant growth.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Abbasnia A, Yousefi N, Mahvi AH, Nabizadeh R, Radfard M, Yousefi M, Alimohammadi M (2019) Evaluation of groundwater quality using water quality index and its suitability for assessing water for drinking and irrigation purposes: case study of Sistan and Baluchistan province (Iran). Hum Ecol Risk Assess Int J 25(4):988–1005
Akhtar N, Syakir Ishak MI, Bhawani SA, Umar K (2021) Various natural and anthropogenic factors responsible for water quality degradation: a review. Water 13(19):2660
Bawa R, Dwivedi P (2019) Impact of land cover on groundwater quality in the Upper Floridan Aquifer in Florida, United States. Environ Pollut 252:1828–1840
Blake S, Henry T, Murray J, Flood R, Muller MR, Jones AG, Rath V (2016) Compositional multivariate statistical analysis of thermal groundwater provenance: a hydrogeochemical case study from Ireland. Appl Geochem 75:171–188
Chandrajith R, Bandara UGC, Diyabalanage S, Senaratne S, Barth JAC (2022) Application of Water Quality Index as a vulnerability indicator to determine seawater intrusion in unconsolidated sedimentary aquifers in a tropical coastal region of Sri Lanka. Groundw Sustain Dev 19:100831
Dos Santos S, Adams EA, Neville G, Wada Y, De Sherbinin A, Bernhardt EM, Adamo SB (2017) Urban growth and water access in sub-Saharan Africa: progress, challenges, and emerging research directions. Sci Total Environ 607:497–508
Egbueri JC (2019) Evaluation and characterization of the groundwater quality and hydrogeochemistry of Ogbaru farming district in southeastern Nigeria. SN Appl Sci 1(8):851
El-Kholy RA, Zaghlool E, Isawi H, Soliman EA, Khalil MMH, El-Aassar A-HM, Said MM (2022) Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index and multivariate statistical analysis case study: East Matrouh, Northwestern coast Egypt. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(43):65699–65722
Federation WE, Association A (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association (APHA), Washington, p 21
Ghalib HB (2017) Groundwater chemistry evaluation for drinking and irrigation utilities in east Wasit province, Central Iraq. Appl Water Sci 7:3447–3467
Guo W, Li P, Du Q, Zhou Y, Xu D, Zhang Z (2023) Hydrogeochemical processes regulating the groundwater geochemistry and human health risk of groundwater in the rural areas of the Wei River Basin China. Expo Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-023-00555-y
Han D, Currell MJ (2022) Review of drivers and threats to coastal groundwater quality in China. Sci Total Environ 806:150913
Idowu TE, Jepkosgei C, Nyadawa M, Korowe MO, Waswa RM, Lasisi KH, Kiplangat N, Munyi J, Ajibade FO (2022) Integrated seawater intrusion and groundwater quality assessment of a coastal aquifer: GALDIT, geospatial and analytical approaches. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(24):36699–36720
Idowu TE, Lasisi KH (2020) Seawater intrusion in the coastal aquifers of East and Horn of Africa: a review from a regional perspective. Sci Afr 8:e00402
Jadeja NB, Banerji T, Kapley A, Kumar R (2022) Water pollution in India-Current scenario. Water Secur 16:100119
Jebreen H, Wohnlich S, Banning A, Wisotzky F, Niedermayr A, Ghanem M (2018) Recharge, geochemical processes and water quality in karst aquifers: Central West Bank, Palestine. Environ Earth Sci 77:1–16
Karakuş CB, Yıldız S (2020) Evaluation for irrigation water purposes of groundwater quality in the vicinity of Sivas City Centre (Turkey) by using GIS and an irrigation water quality index. Irrig Drain 69(1):121–137
Kassenga GR, Mbuligwe SE (2009) Impacts of a solid waste disposal site on soil, surface water and groundwater quality in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania. J Sustain Develop Afr 10(4):73–94
Khalid S, Khan HA, Arif M, Altawaha AR, Adnan M, Fahad S, Shah A, Parmar B (2020) Effects of climate change on irrigation water quality. Environment, climate plant and vegetation growth. Springer, pp 123–132
Khullar S, Singh N (2022) Water quality assessment of a river using deep learning Bi-LSTM methodology: forecasting and validation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(9):12875–12889
King HE, Putnis CV (2013) Direct observations of the influence of solution composition on magnesite dissolution. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 109:113–126
Lawal A, Tijani MN, Snow D, D’Alessio M (2023) Quality and hydrochemical assessment of groundwater in geological transition zones: a case study from NE Nigeria. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30(4):10643–10663
Leonard LS (2022) Assessment of groundwater quality along cemeteries and associated potential health concerns in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Water Pract Technol 17(5):1218–1229
Ligate F, Ijumulana J, Ahmad A, Kimambo V, Irunde R, Mtamba JO, Mtalo F, Bhattacharya P (2021) Groundwater resources in the East African Rift Valley: understanding the geogenic contamination and water quality challenges in Tanzania. Sci Afr 13:e00831
Mahmud A, Sikder S, Joardar JC (2020) Assessment of groundwater quality in Khulna city of Bangladesh in terms of water quality index for drinking purpose. Appl Water Sci 10:1–14
Masindi V, Foteinis S (2021) Groundwater contamination in sub-Saharan Africa: implications for groundwater protection in developing countries. Clean Eng Technol 2:100038
Mishra BK, Kumar P, Saraswat C, Chakraborty S, Gautam A (2021) Water security in a changing environment: concept, challenges and solutions. Water 13(4):490
Mkilima T (2023) Groundwater salinity and irrigation suitability in low-lying coastal areas. A case of Dar es Salaam Tanzania. Watershed Ecol Environ 5:173–185
Mtoni Y, Mjemah IC, Bakundukize C, Van Camp M, Martens K, Walraevens K (2013) Saltwater intrusion and nitrate pollution in the coastal aquifer of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Environ Earth Sci 70:1091–1111
Mukonazwothe M, Munyai LF, Mutoti MI (2022) Groundwater quality evaluation for domestic and irrigation purposes for the Nwanedi Agricultural Community Limpopo Province, South Africa. Heliyon. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09203
Musie W, Gonfa G (2023) Fresh water resource, scarcity, water salinity challenges and possible remedies: a review. Heliyon. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18685
Mussa KR, Mjemah IC, Walraevens K (2019) Quantification of groundwater exploitation and assessment of water quality risk perception in the Dar Es Salaam quaternary aquifer Tanzania. Water 11(12):2552
Nassery HR, Kayhomayoon Z (2013) Source of salinity in the groundwater of Lenjanat Plain, Isfahan, Iran. Environ Earth Sci 68:413–427
Ngasala TM, Masten SJ, Phanikumar MS (2019) Impact of domestic wells and hydrogeologic setting on water quality in peri-urban Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Sci Total Environ 686:1238–1250
Bauder TA, Waskom RM, Sutherland PL, Davis JG, Follett RH, Soltanpour PN (2014) Irrigation water quality criteria. Service in action 0, 10–13
Priya KL, Aswin K, Indu MS, Adarsh S (2020) Assessment of hydrogeochemical processes in the aquifers of Coimbatore city, India with special reference to nickel contamination. Groundw Sustain Dev 11:100393
Ramaroson V, Randriantsivery JR, Rajaobelison J, Fareze LP, Rakotomalala CU, Razafitsalama FA, Rasolofonirina M (2020) Nitrate contamination of groundwater in Ambohidrapeto–Antananarivo-Madagascar using hydrochemistry and multivariate analysis. Appl Water Sci 10(7):1–13
Sappa G, Ergul S, Ferranti F, Sweya LN, Luciani G (2015) Effects of seasonal change and seawater intrusion on water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes, in coastal aquifers of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. J Afr Earth Sci 105:64–84
Sheikhi S, Faraji Z, Aslani H (2021) Arsenic health risk assessment and the evaluation of groundwater quality using GWQI and multivariate statistical analysis in rural areas, Hashtroud, Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:3617–3631
Singh S, Hussian A (2016) Water quality index development for groundwater quality assessment of Greater Noida sub-basin, Uttar Pradesh, India. Cogent Eng 3(1):1177155
Sun S, Tang Q, Konar M, Huang Z, Gleeson T, Ma T, Fang C, Cai X (2022) Domestic groundwater depletion supports China’s full supply chains. Water Resour Res 58(5):e2021WR030695
Taşan M, Demir Y, Taşan S (2022) Groundwater quality assessment using principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis in Alaçam, Turkey. Water Supply 22(3):3431–3447
Uddin MG, Nash S, Rahman A, Olbert AI (2022) A comprehensive method for improvement of water quality index (WQI) models for coastal water quality assessment. Water Res 219:118532
Walraevens K, Mjemah IC, Mtoni Y, Van Camp M (2015) Sources of salinity and urban pollution in the Quaternary sand aquifers of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. J Afr Earth Sci 102:149–165
Yadav IC, Devi NL, Singh S (2015) Reductive dissolution of iron-oxyhydroxides directs groundwater arsenic mobilization in the upstream of Ganges River basin, Nepal. J Geochem Explor 148:150–160
Yustika RD, Somura H, Yuwono SB, Masunaga T (2019) Impact of human activities and natural processes on the seasonal variability of river water quality in two watersheds in Lampung, Indonesia. Water 11(11):2363
Zhang C, Zhang W, Huang Y, Gao X (2017) Analysing the correlations of long-term seasonal water quality parameters, suspended solids and total dissolved solids in a shallow reservoir with meteorological factors. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:6746–6756
Zhang Q, Li P, Lyu Q, Ren X, He S (2022) Groundwater contamination risk assessment using a modified DRATICL model and pollution loading: a case study in the Guanzhong Basin of China. Chemosphere 291:132695
Acknowledgements
Authors acknowledge the water quality laboratory of the Water Institute, (Tanzania) for providing space and facilities for this research work.
Funding
No fund received.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
Authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Nyangi, M.J., Leonard, L.S. Assessment of the Suitability of Groundwater in Kigamboni, Tanzania for Domestic and Irrigation Purposes Using Multivariate and Water Quality Index Analyses. Chemistry Africa 7, 991–1004 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42250-023-00807-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42250-023-00807-z