Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Transition Period in Soccer: A Window of Opportunity

  • Current Opinion
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to describe the physiological changes that occur during the transition period in soccer players. A secondary aim is to address the issue of utilizing the transition period to lay the foundation for the succeeding season. We reviewed published peer-reviewed studies if they met the following three selection criteria: (1) the studied population comprised adult soccer players (aged >18 years), (2) time points of physiological and performance assessments were provided, and (3) appropriate statistics for the calculation of effect sizes were reported. Following two selection phases, 12 scientific publications were considered, involving a total sample of 252 players. The transition period elicits small to moderate negative changes in body composition, a moderate decline in sprint performance with and without changes of direction, and small to moderate decrements in muscle power. Detraining effects are also evident for endurance-related physiological and performance outcomes: large decrements in maximal oxygen consumption (\( \dot{V} \)O2max) and time to exhaustion, and moderate to very large impairments have been observed in intermittent-running performance. Off-season programs should be characterized by clear training objectives, a low frequency of training sessions, and simple training tools in order to facilitate compliance. The program suggested here may constitute the ‘minimum effective dose’ to maintain or at least attenuate the decay of endurance- and neuromuscular-related performance parameters, as well as restore an adequate strength profile (reduce muscle strength imbalances). This periodization strategy may improve the ability of players to cope with the elevated training demands of pre-season training and therefore reduce the risk of injury. Moreover, this strategy will favor a more efficient development of other relevant facets of performance during the pre-competition phase (e.g., tactical organization). We contend that the transition period needs to be perceived as a ‘window of opportunity’ for players to both recover and ‘rebuild’ for the following season.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Reilly T, Ekblom B. The use of recovery methods post-exercise. J Sports Sci. 2005;23(6):619–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Mujika I, Padilla S. Detraining: loss of training-induced physiological and performance adaptations. Part I: short term insufficient training stimulus. Sports Med. 2000;30(2):79–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Mujika I, Padilla S. Detraining: loss of training-induced physiological and performance adaptations. Part II: long term insufficient training stimulus. Sports Med. 2000;30(3):145–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Kraemer WJ, French DN, Paxton NJ, et al. Changes in exercise performance and hormonal concentrations over a big ten soccer season in starters and nonstarters. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(1):121–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Tessitore A, Meeusen R, Cortis C, et al. Effects of different recovery interventions on anaerobic performances following preseason soccer training. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21(3):745–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Owen AL, Forsyth JJ, del Wong P, et al. Heart rate-based training intensity and its impact on injury incidence among elite-level professional soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(6):1705–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Thibeault C, Evans AD. AsMA Medical Guidelines for Air Travel: stresses of flight. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2015;86(5):486–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Silva JR, Ascensao A, Marques F, et al. Neuromuscular function, hormonal and redox status and muscle damage of professional soccer players after a high-level competitive match. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(9):2193–201.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Nedelec M, Halson S, Abaidia AE, et al. Stress, sleep and recovery in elite soccer: a critical review of the literature. Sports Med. 2015;45(10):1387–400.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Gabbett TJ, Domrow N. Relationships between training load, injury, and fitness in sub-elite collision sport athletes. J Sports Sci. 2007;25(13):1507–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Jeong TS, Reilly T, Morton J, et al. Quantification of the physiological loading of one week of “pre-season” and one week of “in-season” training in professional soccer players. J Sports Sci. 2011;29(11):1161–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Malone JJ, Di Michele R, Morgans R, et al. Seasonal training-load quantification in elite English premier league soccer players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2015;10(4):489–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1998.

  14. Hopkins WG, Marshall SW, Batterham AM, et al. Progressive statistics for studies in sports medicine and exercise science. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(1):3–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Reinke S, Karhausen T, Doehner W, et al. The influence of recovery and training phases on body composition, peripheral vascular function and immune system of professional soccer players. PLoS One. 2009;4(3):e4910.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Sotiropoulos A, Travlos AK, Gissis I, et al. The effect of a 4-week training regimen on body fat and aerobic capacity of professional soccer players during the transition period. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(6):1697–703.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Koundourakis NE, Androulakis NE, Malliaraki N, et al. Discrepancy between exercise performance, body composition, and sex steroid response after a six-week detraining period in professional soccer players. PLoS One. 2014;9(2):e87803.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Ostojic S. Seasonal alterations in body composition and sprint performance of elite soccer players. J Exerc Physiol Online. 2003;6(3):24–7.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Caldwell BP, Peters DM. Seasonal variation in physiological fitness of a semiprofessional soccer team. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(5):1370–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. D’Ascenzi F, Pelliccia A, Cameli M, et al. Dynamic changes in left ventricular mass and in fat-free mass in top-level athletes during the competitive season. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2015;22(1):127–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Malliou P, Ispirlidis I, Beneka A, et al. Vertical jump and knee extensors isokinetic performance in professional soccer players related to the phase of the training period. Isokinet Exerc Sci. 2003;11:165–9.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Eniseler N, Sahan C, Vurgun H, et al. Isokinetic strength responses to season-long training and competition in turkish elite soccer players. J Hum Kinet. 2012;31:159–68.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Mohr M, Krustrup P, Bangsbo J. Physiological characteristics and exhaustive exercise performance of elite soccer players during a season. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;34(5):S24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Slettalokken G, Ronnestad BR. High-intensity interval training every second week maintains VO2max in soccer players during off-season. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(7):1946–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Christensen PM, Krustrup P, Gunnarsson TP, et al. VO2 kinetics and performance in soccer players after intense training and inactivity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(9):1716–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Bailey SJ, Wilkerson DP, Dimenna FJ, et al. Influence of repeated sprint training on pulmonary O2 uptake and muscle deoxygenation kinetics in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106(6):1875–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Dupont G, McCall A, Prieur F, et al. Faster oxygen uptake kinetics during recovery is related to better repeated sprinting ability. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010;110(3):627–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Krustrup P, Mohr M, Nybo L, et al. The Yo–Yo IR2 test: physiological response, reliability, and application to elite soccer. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38(9):1666–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Oliveira J. Endurance evaluation in intermittent sports. Doctoral thesis. Porto: University of Porto; 2000.

  30. Bishop D, Girard O, Mendez-Villanueva A. Repeated-sprint ability—Part II: recommendations for training. Sports Med. 2011;41(9):741–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Bangsbo J, Iaia FM, Krustrup P. The Yo–Yo intermittent recovery test: a useful tool for evaluation of physical performance in intermittent sports. Sports Med. 2008;38(1):37–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Boullosa DA, Abreu L, Nakamura FY, et al. Cardiac autonomic adaptations in elite Spanish soccer players during preseason. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013;8(4):400–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Castagna C, Impellizzeri FM, Chauachi A, et al. Pre-season variations in aerobic fitness and performance in elite standard soccer players: a team-study. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(11):2959–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Manzi V, Bovenzi A, Franco Impellizzeri M, et al. Individual training-load and aerobic-fitness variables in premiership soccer players during the precompetitive season. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(3):631–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Wong PL, Chaouachi A, Chamari K, et al. Effect of preseason concurrent muscular strength and high-intensity interval training in professional soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(3):653–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Kalapotharakos VI, Ziogas G, Tokmakidis SP. Seasonal aerobic performance variations in elite soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(6):1502–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Silva JR, Rebelo A, Marques F, et al. Biochemical impact of soccer: an analysis of hormonal, muscle damage, and redox markers during the season. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2014;39(4):432–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Faude O, Kellmann M, Ammann T, et al. Seasonal changes in stress indicators in high level football. Int J Sports Med. 2011;32(4):259–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Silva JR, Magalhaes JF, Ascensao AA, et al. Individual match playing time during the season affects fitness-related parameters of male professional soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(10):2729–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Filaire E, Lac G, Pequignot JM. Biological, hormonal, and psychological parameters in professional soccer players throughout a competitive season. Percept Mot Skills. 2003;97(3 Pt 2):1061–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Mohr M, Krustrup P, Bangsbo J. Match performance of high-standard soccer players with special reference to development of fatigue. J Sports Sci. 2003;21(7):519–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Suda Y, Umeda T, Watanebe K, et al. Changes in neutrophil functions during a 10-month soccer season and their effects on the physical condition of professional Japanese soccer players. Luminescence. 2013;28(2):121–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Rampinini E, Coutts AJ, Castagna C, et al. Variation in top level soccer match performnance. Int J Sports Med. 2007;28:1018–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Malone JJ, Murtagh CF, Morgans R, et al. Countermovement jump performance is not affected during an in-season training microcycle in elite youth soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(3):752–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Ronnestad BR, Nymark BS, Raastad T. Effects of in-season strength maintenance training frequency in professional soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(10):2653–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Jensen J, Randers M, Krustrup P, et al. Intermittent high-intensity drills improve in-seasonal performance of elite soccer players. In: Reilly T, Korkusuz F, editors. Science and football VI. The procedings of the sixth World Congress on Science and Football: Routledge; 2009. p. 296–301.

  47. Iaia FM, Rampinini E, Bangsbo J. High-intensity training in football. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2009;4(3):291–306.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Buchheit M, Laursen PB. High-intensity interval training, solutions to the programming puzzle. Part II: anaerobic energy, neuromuscular load and practical applications. Sports Med. 2013;43(10):927–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Buchheit M, Laursen PB. High-intensity interval training, solutions to the programming puzzle : part I: cardiopulmonary emphasis. Sports Med. 2013;43(5):313–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Bangsbo J, Elbe AM, Andersen M, et al. International consensus conference “Performance in top sports involving intense exercise”. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20(Suppl 2):ii–iv.

  51. Hickson RC, Rosenkoetter MA. Reduced training frequencies and maintenance of increased aerobic power. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1981;13(1):13–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Zinner C, Wahl P, Achtzehn S, et al. Acute hormonal responses before and after 2 weeks of HIT in well trained junior triathletes. Int J Sports Med. 2014;35(4):316–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Wahl P, Mathes S, Kohler K, et al. Acute metabolic, hormonal, and psychological responses to different endurance training protocols. Horm Metab Res. 2013;45(11):827–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Wahl P. Hormonal and metabolic responses to high intensity interval training. J Sports Med Doping Stud. 2013;3:1.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Elliott MC, Wagner PP, Chiu L. Power athletes and distance training: physiological and biomechanical rationale for change. Sports Med. 2007;37(1):47–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Hackney AC, Hosick KP, Myer A, et al. Testosterone responses to intensive interval versus steady-state endurance exercise. J Endocrinol Invest. 2012;35(11):947–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Tschakert G, Hofmann P. High-intensity intermittent exercise: methodological and physiological aspects. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013;8(6):600–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Silva JR, Nassis GP, Rebelo A. Strength training in soccer with a specific focus on highly trained players. Sports Med Open. 2015;2(1):1–27.

  59. Impellizzeri FM, Bizzini M, Dvorak J, et al. Physiological and performance responses to the FIFA 11+ (part 2): a randomised controlled trial on the training effects. J Sports Sci. 2013;31(13):1491–502.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Bizzini M, Impellizzeri FM, Dvorak J, et al. Physiological and performance responses to the “FIFA 11+” (part 1): is it an appropriate warm-up? J Sports Sci. 2013;31(13):1481–90.

  61. Kubo K, Ikebukuro T, Yata H, et al. Time course of changes in muscle and tendon properties during strength training and detraining. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(2):322–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Frohlich M, Emrich E, Schmidtbleicher D. Outcome effects of single-set versus multiple-set training–an advanced replication study. Res Sports Med. 2010;18(3):157–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Kelly SB, Brown LE, Coburn JW, et al. The effect of single versus multiple sets on strength. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21(4):1003–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Sporis G, Jovanovic M, Omrcen D, et al. Can the official soccer game be considered the most important contribution to player’s physical fitness level? J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2011;51(3):374–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Croisier JL, Ganteaume S, Binet J, et al. Strength imbalances and prevention of hamstring injury in professional soccer players: a prospective study. Am J Sports Med. 2008;36(8):1469–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Guex K, Millet GP. Conceptual framework for strengthening exercises to prevent hamstring strains. Sports Med. 2013;43(12):1207–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Schache AG, Dorn TW, Blanch PD, et al. Mechanics of the human hamstring muscles during sprinting. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(4):647–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Paul D, Brito J, Nassis GP. Injury prevention training in football. Time to consider training under fatigue. Aspetar Sports Med J. 2014;3(3):578-81.

  69. Small K, McNaughton L, Greig M, et al. Effect of timing of eccentric hamstring strengthening exercises during soccer training: implications for muscle fatigability. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(4):1077–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Magalhaes J, Rebelo A, Oliveira E, et al. Impact of Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test versus soccer match on physiological, biochemical and neuromuscular parameters. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010;108(1):39–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Thompson D, Nicholas CW, Williams C. Muscular soreness following prolonged intermittent high-intensity shuttle running. J Sports Sci. 1999;17(5):387–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Loturco I, Pereira LA, Kobal R, et al. Half-squat or jump squat training under optimum power load conditions to counteract power and speed decrements in Brazilian elite soccer players during the preseason. J Sports Sci. 2015;33(12):1283–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Fyfe JJ, Bishop DJ, Stepto NK. Interference between concurrent resistance and endurance exercise: molecular bases and the role of individual training variables. Sports Med. 2014;44(6):743–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Wilson JM, Marin PJ, Rhea MR, et al. Concurrent training: a meta-analysis examining interference of aerobic and resistance exercises. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(8):2293–307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Wilson JM, Loenneke JP, Jo E, et al. The effects of endurance, strength, and power training on muscle fiber type shifting. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(6):1724–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Boullosa DA, Abreu L. Dr. Boullosa’s forgotten pieces don’t fit the puzzle: a response to Dr. Buchheit and Dr. Laursen. Sports Med. 2014;44(11):1625–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Boullosa DA. The forgotten pieces of the high-intensity interval training puzzle. Sports Med. 2014;44(8):1169–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Buchheit M, Laursen PB. Dr. Boullosa’s forgotten pieces don’t fit the puzzle. Sports Med. 2014;44(8):1171–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Sports Medicine Programme, Excellence in Football Project, Aspetar-Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, PO Box 29222, Doha, Qatar

    Joao Renato Silva, Richard Akenhead & George P. Nassis

  2. Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Porto, Portugal

    Joao Renato Silva

  3. Health and Performance Unit, Portuguese Football Federation, Lisbon, Portugal

    Joao Brito

Authors
  1. Joao Renato Silva
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joao Brito
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Richard Akenhead
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. George P. Nassis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joao Renato Silva.

Ethics declarations

Funding

No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this article.

Conflicts of interest

Joao Renato Silva, Joao Brito, Richard Akenhead, and George P. Nassis declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Silva, J.R., Brito, J., Akenhead, R. et al. The Transition Period in Soccer: A Window of Opportunity. Sports Med 46, 305–313 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0419-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0419-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation