Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Delineating the Aptness of Improved Geomaterial Strength for Ground Improvement Through Microstructure and Cluster Analysis

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Indian Geotechnical Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this study, a sustainable technology using geopolymer synthesised from industrial waste materials was adopted to treat black clay soil for use in a geotechnical application such as in slope stability. A robust experimental design was applied, considering precursor type, precursor percentage (Pc), liquid activator type (LT), activator-to-precursor ratio and method of preparation (M) as the process factors for the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) determination. The results obtained following Taguchi optimisation and ANOVA revealed the most crucial factors to be LT, Pc and M. Optimum increment in UCS of about four times was achieved and validated using confirmatory experiment at 90% confidence level. An R2 value of 0.937 obtained between the experimental and predicted UCS underlines the prediction accuracy. The predicted values of the full factorial space for the developed soil geopolymers were used to classify them for reliability in a geotechnical application using minimum strength of 200 kPa, via hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). A novel Taguchi hierarchical cluster standardisation procedure was implemented to execute the HCA, integrating geopolymer factors and their levels. The approach was found to be efficient in grouping the data by achieving high similarity levels in the resulting clusters. Moreover, HCA delineated the aptness level of the developed soil geopolymers and complemented/validated the ANOVA and Taguchi optimisation result of factor effects. The microlevel changes in the geopolymer-treated soil were delineated through mineralogical identification, morphological and elemental analyses. The geopolymer soil treatment is superior to lime treatment based on the outcome of the microlevel analyses.

Graphical Abstract

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Duxson P, Mallicoat SW, Lukey G, Kriven WM, van Deventer JS (2007) The effect of alkali and Si/Al ratio on the development of mechanical properties of metakaolin-based geopolymers. Colloids Surf A 292(1):8–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Sukmak P, De Silva P, Horpibulsuk S, Chindaprasirt P (2015) Sulfate resistance of clay-Portland cement and clay high-calcium fly ash geopolymer. J Mater Civ Eng 27(5):04014158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Voottipruex P, Horpibulsuk S, Teerawattanasuk C (2019) Bagasse ash-fly ash geopolymer treated soft Bangkok clay as subgrade. Environ Geotech. https://doi.org/10.1680/jenge.19.00123

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Flower DJ, Sanjayan JG (2007) Green house gas emissions due to concrete manufacture. Int J Life Cycle Assess 12(5):282–288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Habert G, D’Espinose De Lacaillerie JB, Roussel N (2011) An environmental evaluation of geopolymer based concrete production: reviewing current research trends. J Clean Prod 19(11):1229–1238

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Jayanthi PN, Singh DN (2016) Utilisation of sustainable materials for soil stabilisation: state-of-the-art. Adv Civ Eng Mater 5(1):45–79

    Google Scholar 

  7. Ikeagwuani CC, Nwonu DC (2019) Emerging trends in expansive soil stabilisation: a review. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 11:423–440

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Davidovits J (1982) Mineral polymers and methods of making them. USA Patent 4, 349 and 386, 1982.

  9. Davidovits J (1991) Geopolymers. J Therm Anal 37(8):1633–1656

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Davidovits J (2013) Geopolymer cement: a review. Technical Papers 21, Geopolmer Institute, Saint-Quentin, France, pp 1–11

  11. Amulya S, Ravi Shankar AU, Praveen M (2018) Stabilisation of lithomargic clay using alkali activated fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag. Int J Pavement Eng 21:1114–1121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Murmu AL, Dhole N, Patel A (2018) Stabilisation of black cotton soil for subgrade application using fly ash geopolymer. Road Mater Pavement Des 21:867–885

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Parhi PS, Garanayak L, Mahamaya M, Das SK (2018) Stabilization of an expansive soil using alkali activated fly ash based geopolymer. In: Advances in characterization and analysis of expansive soils and rocks, sustainable civil infrastructures. Springer, pp 36–50

  14. Kumar P, Devendra S (2019) Effect of molarity of geopolymer on cement kiln dust and unground cement clinker admixed black cotton soil. In: Geo-Congress 2019 GSP 309

  15. Murmu AL, Jain A, Patel A (2019) Mechanical properties of alkali activated fly ash geopolymer stabilized expansive clay. KSCE J Civ Eng 23(9):3875–3888

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Sukmak P, Sukmak G, Horpibulsuk S, Setkit M, Kassawat S, Arulrajah A (2019) Palm oil fuel ash-soft soil geopolymer for subgrade applications: strength and microstructural evaluation. Road Mater Pavement Des 20(1):110–131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Onyelowe K, Igboayaka C, Orji F, Ugwuanyi H, Van DB (2019) Triaxial and density behaviour of quarry dust based geopolymer cement treated expansive soil with crushed waste glasses for pavement foundation purposes. Int J Pavement Res Technol 12:78–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Yaghoubi M, Arulrajah A, Disfani MM, Horpibulsuk S, Bo WM, Darmawan S (2018) Effects of industrial by-product based geopolymers on the strength developemnt of a soft soil. Soils Found 58:716–728

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Yaghoubi M, Arulrajah A, Disfani MM, Horpibulsuk S, Darmawan S, Wang J (2019) Impact of field conditions on the strength development of a geopolymer stabilized marine clay. Appl Clay Sci 167:33–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Agunwamba JC, Onyia ME, Nwonu DC (2020) Development of expansive soil geopolymer binders for use in waste containment facility. Innov Infrastruct Solut. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-020-00400-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Olivia M, Nikraz H (2012) Properties of fly ash geopolymer concrete designed by Taguchi method. Mater Des 36:191–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Bagheri A, Nazari A (2014) Compressive strength of high strength class C fly ash-based geopolymers with reactive granulated blast furnace slag aggregates designed by taguchi method. Mater Des 54:483–490

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Diop MB, Grutzeck MW, Molez L (2011) Comparing the performances of brick made with natural clay and clay activated by calcination and addition of sodium silicate. Appl Clay Sci 54(2):172–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Teerawattanasuk C, Voottipruex P (2018) Comparison between cement and fly ash geopolymer for stabilized marginal lateritic soil as road material. Int J Pavement Eng 20:1264–1274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. BS 1377 (1990) Method of testing soils for civil engineering purposes. British Standard Institution, London

  26. Leong HY, Ong DL, Sanjayan JG, Nazari A (2018) Strength development of soil-fly ash geopolymer: assessment of soil, flyash, alkali activators, and water. J Mater Civ Eng 30(8):04018171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Roy RK (1990) A primer on the Taguchi method. Van Nostrand Reinhold, Melbourne

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  28. Roy RK (2001) Design of experiments using the Taguchi approach; 16 steps to product and process improvement. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  29. Zhang Z, Wang H, Provis JL (2012) Quantitative study of the reactivity of fly ash in geopolymerization by FTIR. J Sustain Cem-Based Mater 1(4):154–166

    Google Scholar 

  30. Criado M, Palomo A, Fernandez-Jimenez A (2005) Alkai activation of fly ashes. Part 1: effect of curing conditions on the carbonation of the reaction products. Fuel 84:2048–2054

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. ARA, Inc., ERES Consultants Division (2004) Guide for mechanistic-empirical design of new and rehabilitated pavement structures. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington DC

  32. Solanki P, Zaman MM, Dean J (2010) Resilient modulus of clay subgrades stabilized with lime, class C fly ash, and cement kiln dust for pavement design. Transp Res Rec 2186:101–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Ikeagwuani CC, Nwonu DC (2019) Resilient modulus of lime-bamboo ash stabilized subgrade soil with different compactive energy. Geotech Geol Eng 37:3557–3565

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Erguler ZA, Karakus H, Ediz G, Sensogut C (2020) Assessment of design parameters and the slope stability analysis of weak clay-bearing rock masses and associated spoil pies at Tuncbilek basin. Arab J Geosci 13:41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Daniel DE, Wu YK (1993) Compacted clay liners and covers for arid sites. J Geotech Eng 119:223–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Register F (2015) Hazardous and solid waste management system: disposal of coal combustion residuals from electric utilities; Final rules and regulations. Fed Regist 80(74):21302–21501

    Google Scholar 

  37. Shrestha S, Kazama F (2007) Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques: a case study of the Fuji River Basin, Japan. Environ Model Softw 22:464–475

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Nnaji CC, Agunwamba JC (2013) The environmental impact of crude oil formation water: a multivariate approach. J Water Chem Technol 35(5):222–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. NC Dot (2007) Cement and lime stabilization of subgrade soils. Project Special Provisions. North Carolina Department of Transportation, North Carolina

    Google Scholar 

  40. Mamatha KH, Dinesh SV (2017) Resilient modulus of black cotton soil. Int J Pavement Res Technol 10:171–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Antohi-Trandafir O, Tima-Gabor A, Vulpoi A, Balc R, Longman J, Veres D, Simon S (2018) Luminiscence properties of natural muscovite relevant to optical dating of contaminated quartz samples. Radiat Meas 109:1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Edeh JE, Ugama T, Okpe SA (2018) The use of cement treated reclaimed asphalt pavement-quarry waste blends as highway material. Int J Pavement Eng. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2018.1530445

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Bakharev T (2005) Geopolymer materials prepared using Class F fly ash and elevated temperature curing. Cem Concr Res 35:1224–1232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Nwonu DC, Ikeagwuani CC (2021) Microdust effect on the physical condition and microstructure of tropical black clay. Int J Pavement Res Technol 14(1):73–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Nwonu DC, Ikeagwuani CC (2019) Evaluating the effect of agro-based admixture on lime-treated expansive soil for subgrade material. Int J Pavement Eng. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2019.1703979

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Atkinson A, Hearne JA, Knight CF (1999) Thermodynamics modelling and aqueous chemistry in the CaO-Al2O3-SiO2-H2O systems. Mater Res Soc Symp Proc 212:395

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The first author wishes to recognise J.C. Agunwamba and M.E. Onyia for their supervisory support. Also, the first author appreciates the immense support and encouragement from his parents, C.C. Nwonu and F.N. Nwonu, towards his career development.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Civil Engineering Department, University of Nigeria Nsukka, NsukkaEnugu State, 410001, Nigeria

    Donald Chimobi Nwonu & Cordelia Nnennaya Mama

Authors
  1. Donald Chimobi Nwonu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cordelia Nnennaya Mama
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Donald Chimobi Nwonu.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Nwonu, D.C., Mama, C.N. Delineating the Aptness of Improved Geomaterial Strength for Ground Improvement Through Microstructure and Cluster Analysis. Indian Geotech J 51, 1151–1165 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-021-00507-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-021-00507-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation