Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Decoupling Model of Equanimity: Theory, Measurement, and Test in a Mindfulness Intervention

  • ORIGINAL PAPER
  • Published:
Mindfulness Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We integrate Buddhist thought and psychological science to propose a novel conceptual and operational definition of equanimity. First, we introduce the Decoupling Model of Equanimity—conceptualizing equanimity as the decoupling of desire (wanting and not wanting) from the hedonic tone of current or anticipated experience (pleasant and unpleasant). Second, we propose that equanimity is manifested by an intentional attitude of acceptance toward experience regardless of its hedonic tone, as well as by reduced automatic reactivity to the hedonic tone of experience. Third, we theorize that the practice of mindfulness leads to the cultivation of equanimity. We tested these ideas, focusing on the measurement of equanimity toward unpleasant hedonic tone using self-report scales. Meditation novices (M(SD) age  = 31.4(10.9), 65.1 % women), from the general community in Israel, were randomized to a four-session mindfulness training condition (N = 138) or non-intervention control condition (N = 53). Confirmatory factor analyses yielded that, as theorized, equanimity entails one higher-order factor reflecting equanimity, and two lower-order factors—attitude of acceptance and reactivity to unpleasant hedonic tone. Moreover, partially consistent with predictions, we found that relative to the control condition, mindfulness training led to reductions in reactivity to unpleasant hedonic tone over time, as a function of responding to the training (i.e., elevation in state mindfulness). However, training did not lead to expected elevations in attitude of acceptance, regardless of degree of responding to the training. We discuss the implications of these findings for equanimity and mindfulness mechanisms research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abramowitz, J., Tolin, D., & Street, G. (2001). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression: a meta-analysis of controlled studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, 683–703.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anālayo, B. (2003). Satipaṭṭhāna: the direct path to realization. Cambridge: Windhorse Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anālayo, B. (2013). Perspectives on Satipaṭṭhāna. Cambridge: Windhorse Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronson, H. B. (1979). Equanimity (Upekkhā) in Theravāda Buddhism. In A. K. Narain (Ed.), Studies in Pali and Buddhism: a memorial volume in honor of Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap (pp. 1–18). Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588–606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, A., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2007). Anxiety sensitivity: selective review of promising research and future directions. Expert Review in Neurotherapeutics, 7, 97–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, A., Hadash, Y., Lichtash, Y., Tanay, G., Shepherd, K., & Fresco, D. (2015). Decentering and related constructs: a critical review and meta-cognitive processes model. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 599–617.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berridge, K. C. (1996). Food reward: brain substrates of wanting and liking. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 20(1), 1–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (2003). Parsing reward. Trends in Neurosciences, 26(9), 507–513.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berridge, K. C., Robinson, T. E., & Aldridge, J. W. (2009). Dissecting components of reward: ‘liking’, ‘wanting’, and learning. Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 9(1), 65–73.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: a proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bodhi, B. (2000). A comprehensive manual of abhidhamma: the abhidhammattha sangaha of ācariya anuruddha. Onalaska: Pariyatti Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural models with latent variables. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bond, F. W., Hayes, S. C., Baer, R. A., Carpenter, K. M., Guenole, N., Orcutt, H. K., & Zettle, R. D. (2011). Preliminary psychometric properties of the acceptance and action Questionnaire–II: a revised measure of psychological inflexibility and experiential avoidance. Behavior Therapy, 42(4), 676–688.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, S., Witkiewitz, K., Dillworth, T., & Marlatt, G. (2007). The role of thought suppression in the relationship between mindfulness meditation and alcohol use. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2324–2328.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). Perils and promise in defining and measuring mindfulness: observations from experience. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 242–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnham, K. P., & Anderson, D. R. (1998). Model selection and inference: a practical information-theoretic approach. New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: the BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Central Statistics Bureau (2011). The annual statistical yearbook of Israel. Jerusalem.

  • Chadwick, P., Hember, M., Mead, S., Lilley, B., & Dagnan, D. (2005). Responding mindfully to unpleasant thoughts and images: reliability and validity of the Mindfulness Questionnaire. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 451–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, L. A., Watson, D., & Mineka, S. (1994). Temperament, personality, and the mood and anxiety disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103(1), 103–116.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Desbordes, G., Negi, L. T., Pace, T. W. W., Wallace, B. A., Raison, C. L., & Schwartz, E. L. (2012). Effects of mindful-attention and compassion meditation training on amygdala response to emotional stimuli in an ordinary, non-meditative state. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 1–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Desbordes, G., Gard, T., Hoge, E. A., Hölzel, B. K., Kerr, C., Lazar, S. W., & Vago, D. R. (2015). Moving beyond mindfulness: defining equanimity as an outcome measure in meditation and contemplative research. Mindfulness, 6(2), 356–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eifert, G. H., & Heffner, M. (2003). The effects of acceptance versus control contexts on avoidance of panic-related symptoms. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 34, 293–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J., & Laurenceau, J. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: the development and initial validation of the cognitive and affective mindfulness scale-revised (CMS-R). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29(3), 177–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldner, M. T., Zvolensky, M. J., Eifert, G. H., & Spira, A. P. (2003). Emotional avoidance: an experimental test of individual differences and response suppression using biological challenge. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 403–411.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geisinger, K. F. (1994). Cross-cultural normative assessment: translation and adaptation issues influencing the normative interpretation of assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 6, 304–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gethin, R. (1992). The Buddhist path to awakening: a study of the Bodhi-Pakkhiyā Dhammā. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldin, P. R., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on emotion regulation in social anxiety disorder. Emotion, 10(1), 83–91.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goleman, D. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (1976). Meditation as an intervention in stress reactivity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 44(3), 456–466.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, J. A., Courtemanche, J., & Rainville, P. (2011). A non-elaborative mental stance and decoupling of executive and pain-related cortices predicts low pain sensitivity in zen meditators. Pain, 152(1), 150–156.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gu, J., Strauss, C., Bond, R., & Cavanagh, K. (2015). How do mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction improve mental health and wellbeing? A systematic review and meta-analysis of mediation studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 37, 1–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunaratana, B. H. (2002). Mindfulness in plain English. Boston: Wisdom Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadash, Y., Plonsker, R., Vago, D. R., & Bernstein, A. (2016). Experiential self-referential and selfless processing in mindfulness and mental health: conceptual model and implicit measurement methodology. Psychological Assessment. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/pas0000300

  • Hayes, S. C., Follette, V. M., & Linehan, M. M. (Eds.). (2004). Mindfulness and acceptance: expanding the cognitive-behavioral tradition. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy: the process and practice of mindful change (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hepburn, S. R., Crane, C., Barnhofer, T., Duggan, D., Fennell, M., & Williams, J. (2009). Mindfulness based cognitive therapy may reduce thought suppression in previously suicidal participants: findings from a preliminary study. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48, 209–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann, S., Sawyer, A., Witt, A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 169–183.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Dell Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiyota, M. (1991). Mahayana Buddhist meditation: theory and practice. New Delhi: Motilall Banarsidass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraus, S., & Sears, S. (2009). Measuring the immeasurables: development and initial validation of the Self-Other Four Immeasurables (SOFI) scale based on Buddhist teachings on loving kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity. Social Indicators Research, 92(1), 169–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuyken, W., Watkins, E., Holden, E., White, K., Taylor, R. S., Byford, S., et al. (2010). How does mindfulness-based cognitive therapy work? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 1105–1112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lavender, J. M., Jardin, B. F., & Anderson, D. A. (2009). Bulimic symptoms in undergraduate men and women: contributions of mindfulness and thought suppression. Eating Behaviors, 10(4), 228–231.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, G. L., Fan, G. K. T., & Chan, S. W. C. (2015). Validation of Chinese and English versions of the Holistic Well-being Scale in patients with cancer. Supportive Care in Cancer, 23, 3563–3571.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levitt, J. T., Brown, T. A., Orsillo, S. M., & Barlow, D. H. (2004). The effects of acceptance versus suppression of emotion on subjective and psychophysiological response to carbon dioxide challenge in patients with panic disorder. Behavior Therapy, 35, 747–766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leyro, T. M., Zvolensky, M. J., & Bernstein, A. (2010). Distress tolerance and psychopathological symptoms and disorders: a review of the empirical literature among adults. Psychological bulletin 136(4), 576-600. doi:10.1037/a0019712

  • Lillis, J., Hayes, S. C., Bunting, K., & Masuda, A. (2009). Teaching acceptance and mindfulness to improve the lives of the obese: a preliminary test of a theoretical model. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37(1), 58–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mahasi, S. (1978). Practical vipassanā meditational exercises. Rangoon: Buddhasāsanānuggaha Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCracken, L., & Zhao-O’Brien, J. (2010). General psychological acceptance and chronic pain: there is more to accept than pain itself. European Journal of Pain, 14, 170–175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olendzki, A. (2006). The transformative impact of non-self. In D. K. Nauriyal, M. S. Drummond, & Y. B. Lal (Eds.), Buddhist thought and applied psychological research: transcending the boundaries (pp. 250–261). Abingdon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortner, C. N., Kilner, S. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Mindfulness meditation and reduced emotional interference on a cognitive task. Motivation and Emotion, 31(4), 271–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pandita, S. U. (2002). The meaning of satipatthāna. Bangkok: Sahadhammika.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raes, F., Dewulf, D., Van Heeringen, C., & Williams, J. M. G. (2009). Mindfulness and reduced cognitive reactivity to sad mood: evidence from a correlational study and a non-randomized waiting list controlled study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 623–627.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reiss, S., & McNally, R. J. (1985). Expectancy model of fear. In S. Reiss & R. R. Bootzin (Eds.), Theoretical issues in behavior therapy (pp. 107–121). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roemer, L., & Orsillo, S. M. (2007). An open trial of an acceptance-based behavior therapy for generalized anxiety disorder. Behavior Therapy, 38(1), 72–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161–1178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sahdra, B. K., Shaver, P. R., & Brown, K. W. (2010). A scale to measure nonattachment: a Buddhist complement to Western research on attachment and adaptive functioning. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92(2), 27–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salzberg, S. (1995). Loving-kindness: the revolutionary art of happiness. Boston: Shambhala Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlosberg, H. (1954). Three dimensions of emotion. Psychological Review, 61, 81–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M., & Teasdale, J. D. (2013). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sher, C. D., Ingram, R. E., & Segal, Z. V. (2005). Cognitive reactivity and vulnerability: empirical evaluation of construct activation and cognitive diatheses in unipolar depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 487–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, E. (2010). Mindful wisdom: the sati-patthana-sutta on mindfulness, memory, and liberation. History of Religions, 49, 393–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, J. S., & Gaher, R. M. (2005). The distress tolerance scale: development and validation of a self-report measure. Motivation and Emotion, 29(2), 83–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solis, E. (2015). Cognitive reactivity: structure and validity of the LEIDS-R, Unpublished manuscript.

  • Steiger, J. H., & Lind, J. C. (1980). Statistically-based tests for the number of common factors. Paper presented at the annual Spring Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Iowa City, IA.

  • Tanay, G., & Bernstein, A. (2013). State mindfulness scale (SMS): development and initial validation. Psychological Assessment, 25(4), 1286–1299.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tanay, G., Lotan, G., & Bernstein, A. (2012). Salutary proximal processes and distal mood and anxiety vulnerability outcomes of mindfulness training: a pilot preventive intervention. Behavior Therapy, 43, 492–505.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. (2014). Anxiety sensitivity: theory, research, and treatment of the fear of anxiety. Abingdon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S., Zvolensky, M. J., Cox, B. J., Deacon, B., Heimberg, R. G., Ledley, D. R., & Cardenas, S. J. (2007). Robust dimensions of anxiety sensitivity: development and initial validation of the anxiety sensitivity index-3. Psychological Assessment, 19(2), 176–188.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, V. A., Grant, J., Daneault, V., Scavone, G., Breton, E., Roffe-Vidal, S., & Beauregard, M. (2011). Impact of mindfulness on the neural responses to emotional pictures in experienced and beginner meditators. NeuroImage, 57(4), 1524–1533.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thanissaro, B. (1996). Wings to awakening: an anthology from the Pali Canon. Barre: Dhamma Dana Publications.

  • Thompson, B. L., & Waltz, J. (2010). Mindfulness and experiential avoidance as predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder avoidance symptom severity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 409–415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38(1), 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vago, D. R., & Silbersweig, D. A. (2012). Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART): a framework for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 1–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Does, W. (2002). Cognitive reactivity to sad mood: structure and validity of a new measure. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 105–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wegner, D. M., & Zanakos, S. (1994). Chronic thought suppression. Journal of Personality, 62(4), 615–640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thoughts suppression. Journal of Personality and Social, 53, 5–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, N., Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). A multi-method examination of the effects of mindfulness on stress attribution, coping, and emotional well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(3), 374–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. M., Van der Does, A. J., Barnhofer, T., Crane, C., & Segal, Z. S. (2008). Cognitive reactivity, suicidal ideation and future fluency: preliminary investigation of a differential activation theory of hopelessness/suicidality. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 83–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeidan, F., Grant, J. A., Brown, C. A., McHaffie, J. G., & Coghill, R. C. (2012). Mindfulness meditation-related pain relief: evidence for unique brain mechanisms in the regulation of pain. Neuroscience Letters, 520(2), 165–173.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zeng, X., Li, M., Zhang, B., & Liu, X. (2015a). Revision of the Philadelphia mindfulness scale for measuring awareness and equanimity in Goenka’s Vipassana meditation with Chinese Buddhists. Journal of Religion and Health, 54(2), 623–637.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeng, X., Oei, T. P., Ye, Y., & Liu, X. (2015b). A critical analysis of the concepts and measurement of awareness and equanimity in Goenka’s Vipassana meditation. Journal of Religion and Health, 54(2), 399–412.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Dr. Bernstein recognizes the funding support from the Israel Science Foundation and the Caesarea-Rothschild Foundation. Mr. Hadash recognizes the support from the University of Haifa President’s Doctoral Fellowship Program. Amit Bernstein and graduate student Galia Tanay designed the study. Amit Bernstein, Pavel Goldstein, and Natalie Segev analyzed the data. All authors worked on the manuscript. We want to thank Yaara Nitzan, Yael Lichtash, Koby Avital, Maayan Shenker, Hagai Schreuer, and David Spivak for their help in carrying out the study and Kim Yuval for his help in managing the data.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, 31905, Israel

    Yuval Hadash, Natalie Segev, Galia Tanay, Pavel Goldstein & Amit Bernstein

  2. Department of Statistics, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, 31905, Israel

    Pavel Goldstein

Authors
  1. Yuval Hadash
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Natalie Segev
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Galia Tanay
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Pavel Goldstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Amit Bernstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amit Bernstein.

Ethics declarations

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Additional information

Y. Hadash and N. Segev share first-authorship on this paper.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hadash, Y., Segev, N., Tanay, G. et al. The Decoupling Model of Equanimity: Theory, Measurement, and Test in a Mindfulness Intervention. Mindfulness 7, 1214–1226 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0564-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0564-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation