Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Moving Beyond Mindfulness: Defining Equanimity as an Outcome Measure in Meditation and Contemplative Research

  • ORIGINAL PAPER
  • Published:
Mindfulness Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In light of a growing interest in contemplative practices such as meditation, the emerging field of contemplative science has been challenged to describe and objectively measure how these practices affect health and well-being. While “mindfulness” itself has been proposed as a measurable outcome of contemplative practices, this concept encompasses multiple components, some of which, as we review here, may be better characterized as equanimity. Equanimity can be defined as an even-minded mental state or dispositional tendency toward all experiences or objects, regardless of their origin or their affective valence (pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral). In this article, we propose that equanimity be used as an outcome measure in contemplative research. We first define and discuss the inter-relationship between mindfulness and equanimity from the perspectives of both classical Buddhism and modern psychology and present existing meditation techniques for cultivating equanimity. We then review psychological, physiological, and neuroimaging methods that have been used to assess equanimity either directly or indirectly. In conclusion, we propose that equanimity captures potentially the most important psychological element in the improvement of well-being, and therefore should be a focus in future research studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alberts, H. J. E. M., Schneider, F., & Martijn, C. (2012). Dealing efficiently with emotions: acceptance-based coping with negative emotions requires fewer resources than suppression. Cognition & Emotion, 26(5), 863–870.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alford, B. A., & Beck, A. T. (1997). The integrative power of cognitive therapy. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Analayo. (2003). Satipatthana: the direct path to realization. Cambridge: Windhorse.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, J. H. (2009). Selfless insight: Zen and the meditative transformations of consciousness. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008). Enhancing the pace of recovery: self-distanced analysis of negative experiences reduces blood pressure reactivity. Psychological Science, 19(3), 2292–2231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2010). From a distance: implications of spontaneous self-distancing for adaptive self-reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(5), 809–829.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Lykins, E. L., Button, D., Krietemeyer, J., Sauer, S., et al. (2008). Construct validity of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire in meditating and nonmeditating samples. Assessment, 15(3), 329–342.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beauregard, M., Lévesque, J., & Bourgouin, P. (2001). Neural correlates of conscious self-regulation of emotion. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(18), RC165.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, H. (1975). The relaxation response. New York: Morrow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., et al. (2004). Mindfulness: a proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bodhi, B. (2000). A comprehensive manual of Abhidhamma: the philosophical psychology of Buddhism. Onalaska: Buddhist Publication Society Pariyatti Editions.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bodhi, B. (2005). In the Buddha’s words: an anthology of discourses from the Pali Canon. Somerville: Wisdom Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bodhi, B. (2011). What does mindfulness really mean? A canonical perspective. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 19–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borkovec, T. D. (2006). Life in the future versus life in the present. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9(1), 76–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, J. A., Worhunsky, P. D., Gray, J. R., Tang, Y.-Y., Weber, J., & Kober, H. (2011). Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(50), 20254–20259.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buddhaghosa, B. (2003). The path of purification: Visuddhimagga. Onalaska: Buddhist Publication Society Pariyatti Editions.

    Google Scholar 

  • Büssing, A., Ostermann, T., & Matthiessen, P. F. (2006). Distinct expressions of vital spirituality: the ASP questionnaire as an explorative research tool. Journal of Religion and Health, 46(2), 267–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell-Sills, L., Barlow, D. H., Brown, T. A., & Hofmann, S. G. (2006). Effects of suppression and acceptance on emotional responses of individuals with anxiety and mood disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(9), 1251–1263.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, W. B. (1915). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage: an account of recent researches into the function of emotional excitement. New York: Appleton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carmody, J., Baer, R. A., Lykins, E. L., & Olendzki, N. (2009). An empirical study of the mechanisms of mindfulness in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(6), 613–626.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, R., Gullone, E., & Allen, N. B. (2009). Mindful emotion regulation: an integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(6), 560–572.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, H. A., Woltering, S., Lamm, C., & Lewis, M. D. (2010). Hearts and minds: coordination of neurocognitive and cardiovascular regulation in children and adolescents. Biological Psychology, 84(2), 296–303.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chin, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2010). Meta-awareness. In W. P. Banks (Ed.), Encyclopedia of consciousness (pp. 33–41). San Diego: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalai Lama. (2001a). Stages of meditation. Ithaca: Snow Lion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalai Lama. (2001b). Dzogchen: the heart essence of the great perfection. Ithaca: Snow Lion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalai Lama. (2001c). An open heart: practicing compassion in everyday life. New York: Little, Brown and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J. (2003). Darwin and the neural bases of emotion and affective style. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1000(1), 316–336.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J., & Begley, S. (2012). The emotional life of your brain: how its unique patterns affect the way you think, feel, and live—and how you can change them. New York: Hudson Street Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deikman, A. J. (1983). The observing self: mysticism and psychotherapy. Boston: Beacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demaree, H. A., Robinson, J. L., Everhart, D. E., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2004). Resting RSA is associated with natural and self-regulated responses to negative emotional stimuli. Brain and Cognition, 56(1), 14–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Desbordes, G., & Negi, L. T. (2013). A new era for mind studies: training investigators in both scientific and contemplative methods of inquiry. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 741.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Desbordes, G., Negi, L. T., Pace, T. W. W., Wallace, B. A., Raison, C. L., & Schwartz, E. L. (2012). Effects of mindful-attention and compassion meditation training on amygdala response to emotional stimuli in an ordinary, non-meditative state. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 292.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dikecligil, G. N., & Mujica-Parodi, L. R. (2010). Ambulatory and challenge-associated heart rate variability measures predict cardiac responses to real-world acute emotional stress. Biological Psychiatry, 67(12), 1185–1190.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dreyfus, G. (2011). Is mindfulness present-centred and non-judgmental? A discussion of the cognitive dimensions of mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 41–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Driscoll, D., Tranel, D., & Anderson, S. W. (2009). The effects of voluntary regulation of positive and negative emotion on psychophysiological responsiveness. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 72(1), 61–66.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, B. D., Billotti, D., Murphy, V., & Dalgleish, T. (2009). The consequences of effortful emotion regulation when processing distressing material: a comparison of suppression and acceptance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(9), 761–773.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunne, J. D. (2011). Toward an understanding of non-dual mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 71–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Miller, P. A., Fultz, J., Shell, R., Mathy, R. M., et al. (1989). Relation of sympathy and personal distress to prosocial behavior: a multimethod study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(1), 55–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., & Rosenberg, E. L. (Eds.). (2005). What the face reveals: basic and applied studies of spontaneous expression using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fresco, D. M., Moore, M. T., van Dulmen, M. H. M., Segal, Z. V., Ma, S. H., Teasdale, J. D., et al. (2007). Initial psychometric properties of the experiences questionnaire: validation of a self-report measure of decentering. Behavior Therapy, 38(3), 234–246.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1966). The complete introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, I. (2000). Philosophical conceptions of the self: implications for cognitive science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(1), 14–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gard, T., Hölzel, B. K., Sack, A. T., Hempel, H., Lazar, S. W., Vaitl, D., et al. (2012). Pain attenuation through mindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and increased sensory processing in the brain. Cerebral Cortex, 22(11), 2692–2702.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garrison, K. A., Santoyo, J. F., Davis, J. H., Thornhill, T. A., Kerr, C. E., & Brewer, J. A. (2013a). Effortless awareness: using real time neurofeedback to investigate correlates of posterior cingulate cortex activity in meditators’ self-report. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 440.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garrison, K. A., Scheinost, D., Worhunsky, P. D., Elwafi, H. M., Thornhill, T. A., Thompson, E., et al. (2013b). Real-time fMRI links subjective experience with brain activity during focused attention. NeuroImage, 81, 110–118.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geisler, F. C. M., Vennewald, N., Kubiak, T., & Weber, H. (2010). The impact of heart rate variability on subjective well-being is mediated by emotion regulation. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(7), 723–728.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: an evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(3), 351–374.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldin, P. R., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on emotion regulation in social anxiety disorder. Emotion, 10(1), 83–91.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grabovac, A. D., Lau, M. A., & Willett, B. R. (2011). Mechanisms of mindfulness: a Buddhist psychological model. Mindfulness, 2(3), 154–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gramzow, R. H., Willard, G., & Mendes, W. B. (2008). Big tales and cool heads: academic exaggeration is related to cardiac vagal reactivity. Emotion, 8(1), 138–144.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, J. A., Courtemanche, J., & Rainville, P. (2011). A non-elaborative mental stance and decoupling of executive and pain-related cortices predicts low pain sensitivity in Zen meditators. Pain, 152(1), 150–156.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (2006). Emotion regulation: conceptual foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, P. (2008). On measuring mindfulness in psychosomatic and psychological research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64(4), 405–408.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunaratana, B. H. (2002). Mindfulness in plain English. Boston: Wisdom Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guo, Y., & Pagnoni, G. (2008). A unified framework for group independent component analysis for multi-subject fMRI data. NeuroImage, 42(3), 1078–1093.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gyurak, A., & Ayduk, Ö. (2008). Resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia buffers against rejection sensitivity via emotion control. Emotion, 8(4), 458–467.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. (1996). Experimental avoidance and behavioral disorders: a functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(6), 1152–1168.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy: an experiential approach to behavior change. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Follette, V. M., & Linehan, M. M. (Eds.). (2004). Mindfulness and acceptance: expanding the cognitive-behavioral tradition. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, E. A., Bui, T. H. E., Metcalf, C. E., Pollack, M. H., Simon, N. M. (2012). Mindfulness training improves resilience: Reductions in adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) response to laboratory stress. American College of Neuropsychopharmacology 51st Annual meeting, Miami, FL, December 5, 2012.

  • Hölzel, B. K., Hoge, E. A., Greve, D. N., Gard, T., Creswell, J. D., Brown, K. W., et al. (2013). Neural mechanisms of symptom improvements in generalized anxiety disorder following mindfulness training. NeuroImage: Clinical, 2, 448–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jang, J. H., Jung, W. H., Kang, D.-H., Byun, M. S., Kwon, S. J., Choi, C.-H., et al. (2011). Increased default mode network connectivity associated with meditation. Neuroscience Letters, 487(3), 358–362.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Josipovic, Z. (2010). Duality and nonduality in meditation research. Consciousness and Cognition, 19(4), 1119–1121.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Delacorte Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kang, C., & Whittingham, K. (2010). Mindfulness: a dialogue between Buddhism and clinical psychology. Mindfulness, 1(3), 161–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karatsoreos, I. N., & McEwen, B. S. (2011). Psychobiological allostasis: resistance, resilience and vulnerability. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(12), 576–584.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., & Rottenberg, J. (2010). Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 865–878.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: problem and process in human development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, C. E., Josyula, K., & Littenberg, R. (2011). Developing an observing attitude: an analysis of meditation diaries in an MBSR clinical trial. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 18(1), 80–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, L. A., Suyenobu, B. Y., Smith, S. R., Bueller, J. A., Goodman, T., Creswell, J. D., et al. (2011). Impact of mindfulness-based stress reduction training on intrinsic brain connectivity. NeuroImage, 56(1), 290–298.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K. M., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1993). The “Trier Social Stress Test”—a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28(1–2), 76–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kokkonen, M., & Pulkkinen, L. (2001). Extraversion and neuroticism as antecedents of emotion regulation and dysregulation in adulthood. European Journal of Personality, 15(6), 407–424.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraus, S., & Sears, S. (2009). Measuring the Immeasurables: development and initial validation of the Self-Other Four Immeasurables (SOFI) scale based on Buddhist teachings on loving kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity. Social Indicators Research, 92(1), 169–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kross, E., & Ayduk, Ö. (2008). Facilitating adaptive emotional analysis: distinguishing distanced-analysis of depressive experiences from immersed-analysis and distraction. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7), 924–938.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kross, E., Ayduk, Ö., & Mischel, W. (2005). When asking “why” does not hurt. Distinguishing rumination from reflective processing of negative emotions. Psychological Science, 16(9), 709–715.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ledoux, J. (1996). The emotional brain: the mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, R. W., Ekman, P., & Ricard, M. (2012). Meditation and the startle response: a case study. Emotion, 12(3), 650–658.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lévesque, J., Eugene, F., Joanette, Y., Paquette, V., Mensour, B., Beaudoin, G., et al. (2003). Neural circuitry underlying voluntary suppression of sadness. Biological Psychiatry, 53(6), 502–510.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lundman, B., Strandberg, G., Eisemann, M., Gustafson, Y., & Brulin, C. (2007). Psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the Resilience Scale. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 21(2), 229–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lutz, A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2007). Meditation and the neuroscience of consciousness: an introduction. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Moscovitch, & E. Thompson (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of consciousness (1st ed., pp. 499–551). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lutz, A., Brefczynski-Lewis, J., Johnstone, T., & Davidson, R. J. (2008). Regulation of the neural circuitry of emotion by compassion meditation: effects of meditative expertise. PLoS One, 3(3), e1897.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mack, J. W., Nilsson, M., Balboni, T., Friedlander, R. J., Block, S. D., Trice, E., & Prigerson, H. G. (2008). Peace, Equanimity, and Acceptance in the Cancer Experience (PEACE): validation of a scale to assess acceptance and struggle with terminal illness. Cancer, 112(11), 2509–2517.

    Google Scholar 

  • Makransky, J. (2007). Awakening through love: unveiling your deepest goodness. Somerville: Wisdom Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, O., & Hargreaves, I. (2001). A qualitative study of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74, 197–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B. S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. The New England Journal of Medicine, 338(3), 171–179.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B. S. (2008). Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. European Journal of Pharmacology, 583(2–3), 174–185.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B. S., & Seeman, T. E. (1999). Protective and damaging effects of mediators of stress. Elaborating and testing the concepts of allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896, 30–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McRae, K., Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2010). The reason in passion: a social cognitive neuroscience approach to emotion regulation. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation, second edition: research, theory, and applications (pp. 186–203). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, A., & Malinowski, P. (2009). Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive flexibility. Consciousness and Cognition, 18(1), 176–186.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Najström, M., & Jansson, B. (2007). Skin conductance responses as predictor of emotional responses to stressful life events. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(10), 2456–2463.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nanamoli, B. (1991). The path of purification. Onalaska: Buddhist Publication Society Pariyatti Editions.

    Google Scholar 

  • Northoff, G., & Bermpohl, F. (2004). Cortical midline structures and the self. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(3), 102–107.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Northoff, G., Heinzel, A., de Greck, M., Bermpohl, F., Dobrowolny, H., & Panksepp, J. (2006). Self-referential processing in our brain—a meta-analysis of imaging studies on the self. NeuroImage, 31(1), 440–457.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nyanaponika Thera (1962). The heart of Buddhist meditation: a handbook of mental training based on the Buddha’s way of mindfulness. London: Rider.

  • Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2005). The cognitive control of emotion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(5), 242–249.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002). Rethinking feelings: an fMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(8), 1215–1229.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ochsner, K. N., Ray, R. D., Cooper, J. C., Robertson, E. R., Chopra, S., Gabrieli, J. D. E., et al. (2004). For better or for worse: neural systems supporting the cognitive down- and up-regulation of negative emotion. NeuroImage, 23(2), 483–499.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ohira, H., Nomura, M., Ichikawa, N., Isowa, T., Iidaka, T., Sato, A., et al. (2006). Association of neural and physiological responses during voluntary emotion suppression. NeuroImage, 29(3), 721–733.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olendzki, A. (2011). The construction of mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 55–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortner, C. N., Kilner, S. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Mindfulness meditation and reduced emotional interference on a cognitive task. Motivation and Emotion, 31(4), 271–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pace, T. W. W., Mletzko, T. C., Alagbe, O., Musselman, D. L., Nemeroff, C. B., Miller, A. H., et al. (2006). Increased stress-induced inflammatory responses in male patients with major depression and increased early life stress. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(9), 1630–1633.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pace, T. W. W., Negi, L. T., Adame, D. D., Cole, S. P., Sivilli, T. I., Brown, T. D., et al. (2009). Effect of compassion meditation on neuroendocrine, innate immune and behavioral responses to psychosocial stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(1), 87–98.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pagnoni, G., Cekic, M., & Guo, Y. (2008). “Thinking about not-thinking”: neural correlates of conceptual processing during Zen meditation. PLoS One, 3(9), e3083.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parkinson, B., & Totterdell, P. (1999). Classifying affect-regulation strategies. Cognition and Emotion, 13(3), 277–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perlman, D. M., Salomons, T. V., Davidson, R. J., & Lutz, A. (2010). Differential effects on pain intensity and unpleasantness of two meditation practices. Emotion, 10(1), 65–71.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 116–143.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Porges, S. W. (2011). The polyvagal theory: neurophysiological foundations of emotions, attachment, communication, and self-regulation (Norton Series on Interpersonal Neurobiology). New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pu, J., Schmeichel, B. J., & Demaree, H. A. (2010). Cardiac vagal control predicts spontaneous regulation of negative emotional expression and subsequent cognitive performance. Biological Psychology, 84(3), 531–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Purdon, C. (1999). Thought suppression and psychopathology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37(11), 1029–1054.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, J. L., & Demaree, H. A. (2009). Experiencing and regulating sadness: physiological and cognitive effects. Brain and Cognition, 70(1), 13–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz-Padial, E., Vila, J., & Thayer, J. F. (2011). The effect of conscious and non-conscious presentation of biologically relevant emotion pictures on emotion modulated startle and phasic heart rate. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 79(3), 341–346.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Safran, J., & Segal, Z. V. (1990). Interpersonal process in cognitive therapy. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sahdra, B. K., Shaver, P. R., & Brown, K. W. (2010). A scale to measure nonattachment: a Buddhist complement to Western research on attachment and adaptive functioning. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92(2), 116–127.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salzberg, S. (1995). Loving-kindness: the revolutionary art of happiness. Boston: Shambhala Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, S. M., Jackson, D. C., Davidson, R. J., Aguirre, G. K., Kimberg, D. Y., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2002). Modulation of amygdalar activity by the conscious regulation of negative emotion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(6), 913–921.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schooler, J. W., Smallwood, J., Christoff, K., Handy, T. C., Reichle, E. D., & Sayette, M. A. (2011). Meta-awareness, perceptual decoupling and the wandering mind. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(7), 319–326.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuyler, B. S., Kral, T. R. A., Jacquart, J., Burghy, C. A., Weng, H. Y., Perlman, D. M., et al. (2012). Temporal dynamics of emotional responding: amygdala recovery predicts emotional traits. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. doi:10.1093/scan/nss131.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2001). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: a new approach to preventing relapse. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheppes, G., Catran, E., & Meiran, N. (2009). Reappraisal (but not distraction) is going to make you sweat: physiological evidence for self-control effort. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71(2), 91–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slagter, H. A., Davidson, R. J., & Lutz, A. (2011). Mental training as a tool in the neuroscientific study of brain and cognitive plasticity. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5, 17.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. W., Cribbet, M. R., Nealey-Moore, J. B., Uchino, B. N., Williams, P. G., Mackenzie, J., et al. (2011). Matters of the variable heart: respiratory sinus arrhythmia response to marital interaction and associations with marital quality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(1), 103–119.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stellar, J. E., Manzo, V. M., Kraus, M. W., & Keltner, D. (2012). Class and compassion: socioeconomic factors predict responses to suffering. Emotion, 12(3), 449–459.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steptoe, A., Hamer, M., & Chida, Y. (2007). The effects of acute psychological stress on circulating inflammatory factors in humans: a review and meta-analysis. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 21(7), 901–912.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, P., & Eyer, J. (1988). Allostasis: a new paradigm to explain arousal pathology. In S. Fisher & J. Reason (Eds.), Handbook of life stress, cognition and health (pp. 629–649). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, E. (2000). The balance within: the science connecting health and emotions. New York: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suls, J., & Martin, R. (2005). The daily life of the garden-variety neurotic: reactivity, stressor exposure, mood spillover, and maladaptive coping. Journal of Personality, 73(6), 1485–1509.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, V. A., Grant, J. A., Daneault, V., Scavone, G., Breton, E., Roffe-Vidal, S., et al. (2011). Impact of mindfulness on the neural responses to emotional pictures in experienced and beginner meditators. NeuroImage, 57(4), 1524–1533.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D. (1999). Metacognition, mindfulness and the modification of mood disorders. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 6(2), 146–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., & Williams, J. M. (1995). How does cognitive therapy prevent depressive relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(1), 25–39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D., Moore, R. G., Hayhurst, H., Pope, M., Williams, S., & Segal, Z. V. (2002). Metacognitive awareness and prevention of relapse in depression: empirical evidence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(2), 275–287.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1996). Wings to awakening: an anthology from the Pali Canon. Barre: Dhamma Dana Publications.

  • Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 61(3), 201–216.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thayer, J. F., Åhs, F., Fredrikson, M., Sollers, J. J., III, & Wager, T. D. (2012). A meta-analysis of heart rate variability and neuroimaging studies: implications for heart rate variability as a marker of stress and health. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(2), 747–756.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thrangu Rinpoche, K. (2002). Essential practice. Ithaca: Snow Lion Publications.

  • Travis, F., & Shear, J. (2010). Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions. Consciousness and Cognition, 19(4), 1110–1118.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsering, G. T. (2006). Buddhist psychology. The foundation of Buddhist thought, vol. 3. Somerville: Wisdom Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vago, D. R., & Nakamura, Y. (2011). Selective attentional bias towards pain-related threat in fibromyalgia: preliminary evidence for effects of mindfulness meditation training. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 35(6), 581–594.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Tongeren, D. R., & Green, J. D. (2010). Combating meaninglessness: on the automatic defense of meaning. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(10), 1372–1384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. T., & Rosch, E. (1992). The embodied mind: cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge: The MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2010). Handbook of self-regulation, second edition: research, theory, and applications. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volokhov, R. N., & Demaree, H. A. (2010). Spontaneous emotion regulation to positive and negative stimuli. Brain and Cognition, 73(1), 1–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Känel, R., Kudielka, B. M., Preckel, D., Hanebuth, D., & Fischer, J. E. (2006). Delayed response and lack of habituation in plasma interleukin-6 to acute mental stress in men. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 20(1), 40–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vuilleumier, P. (2005). How brains beware: neural mechanisms of emotional attention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(12), 585–594.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, B. A. (2006). The attention revolution: unlocking the power of the focused mind. Somerville: Wisdom Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, B. A. (2010). The four immeasurables: practices to open the heart. Ithaca: Snow Lion Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, B. A. (2011). Minding closely: the four applications of mindfulness. Ithaca: Snow Lion Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whalen, P. J. (1998). Fear, vigilance, and ambiguity: initial neuroimaging studies of the human amygdala. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7(6), 177–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whalen, P. J., & Phelps, E. A. (Eds.). (2009). The human amygdala. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. M. G. (2010). Mindfulness and psychological process. Emotion, 10(1), 1–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. M. G., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (2011). Mindfulness: diverse perspectives on its meaning, origins, and multiple applications at the intersection of science and Dharma. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wirtz, P. H., von Känel, R., Emini, L., Suter, T., Fontana, A., & Ehlert, U. (2007). Variations in anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal and differential proinflammatory cytokine expression in response to acute stress. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 21(6), 851–859.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamakawa, K., Matsunaga, M., Isowa, T., Kimura, K., Kasugai, K., Yoneda, M., et al. (2009). Transient responses of inflammatory cytokines in acute stress. Biological Psychology, 82(1), 25–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was supported in part by the National Institutes of Health (grant number K23 AT004432 to Elizabeth Hoge) and the 7th European Community Framework Programme (Marie Curie International Outgoing Fellowship to Britta K. Hölzel). The authors would like to thank Andrea Grabovac for helpful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. All authors contributed equally to this work and are listed alphabetically.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, 149 Thirteenth Street, Boston, MA, 02129, USA

    Gaëlle Desbordes

  2. Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands

    Tim Gard

  3. Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

    Elizabeth A. Hoge & Sara W. Lazar

  4. Institute for Medical Psychology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany

    Britta K. Hölzel

  5. Department of Family Medicine, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA

    Catherine Kerr

  6. Barre Center for Buddhist Studies, Barre, MA, USA

    Andrew Olendzki

  7. Department of Psychiatry, Brigham & Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

    David R. Vago

Authors
  1. Gaëlle Desbordes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tim Gard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Elizabeth A. Hoge
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Britta K. Hölzel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Catherine Kerr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Sara W. Lazar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Andrew Olendzki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. David R. Vago
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gaëlle Desbordes.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Desbordes, G., Gard, T., Hoge, E.A. et al. Moving Beyond Mindfulness: Defining Equanimity as an Outcome Measure in Meditation and Contemplative Research. Mindfulness 6, 356–372 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-013-0269-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-013-0269-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation