Abstract
Stiff clays in intact and compacted states often exhibit distinct swelling properties, which are highly dependent on the microstructural characteristics of the soil. In this study, one-dimensional swelling tests and microstructure investigations including MIP and μ-CT tests were conducted on intact and compacted Nanning stiff clay samples. The experimental results indicated that the remolding process remarkably enlarges the expansibility of the stiff clay. Moreover, the measured full-scale pore size distribution curves by comprehensive microscopic analysis showed that the intact stiff clay processes a smaller micro-pore family due to the diagenesis effect during its geological formation and larger macro-pores like cracks and fissures that formed during its geological history. The diagenesis bonding has a significant inhibition effect on the expansibility of the intact sample. The remolding process in the laboratory destructs the diagenesis bonding by crushing. The discrete cemented materials in the compacted sample cannot offer bridge connections between clay aggregates, thus enabling the compacted sample present more distinct expansibility when being subjected to hydration.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Alonso EE, Alcoverro J (2002) Swelling and degradation of argillaceous rocks. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 37–70
Alonso EE, Pineda JA, Cardoso R (2010) Degradation of marls; two case studies from the Iberian Peninsula. Geol Soc Lond Eng Geol Spec Publ 23:47–75. https://doi.org/10.1144/EGSP23.5
Alonso EE, Romero E, Hoffmann C (2011) Hydromechanical behaviour of compacted granular expansive mixtures: experimental and constitutive study. Géotechnique 61:329–344. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2011.61.4.329
Anthony JW, Bideaux RA, Bladh KW, Nichols MC (2001) Handbook of mineralogy. Mineralogical Society of America, Chantilly
Blaney L (2007) Magnetite (Fe3O4): properties, synthesis, and applications. Lehigh Preserve 15:1–50
Burton GJ, Pineda JA, Sheng DC, Airey D (2015) Microstructural changes of an undisturbed, reconstituted and compacted high plasticity clay subjected to wetting and drying. Eng Geol 193:363–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.05.010
Cafaro F, Cotecchia F (2001) Structure degradation and changes in the mechanical behaviour of a stiff clay due to weathering. Géotechnique 51:441–453. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2001.51.5.441
Chandler RJ (2000) The third glossop lecture: clay sediments in depositional basins: the geotechnical cycle. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 33:7–39. https://doi.org/10.1144/qjegh.33.1.7
Czerewko MA (1997) Diagenesis of mudrocks, illite “crystallinity” and the effects on engineering properties. PhD, University of Sheffield
Davy CA, Skoczylas F, Barnichon J-D, Lebon P (2007) Permeability of macro-cracked argillite under confinement: gas and water testing. Phys Chem Earth Parts ABC 32:667–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2006.02.055
Delage P, Audiguier M, Cui YJ, Howat MD (1996) Microstructure of a compacted silt. Can Geotech J 33:150–158. https://doi.org/10.1139/t96-030
Delage P, Le TT, Tang AM, Cui YJ, Li XL, May R (2007) Suction effects in deep Boom clay block samples. Geotechnique 57:239. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2007.57.10.862
Delay J, Vinsot A, Krieguer JM, Rebours H, Armand G (2007) Making of the underground scientific experimental programme at the Meuse/Haute-Marne underground research laboratory, North Eastern France. Phys Chem Earth Parts ABC 32:2–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2006.04.033
Desbois G, Urai JL, Hemes S, Schroppel B, Schwarz JO, Mac M, Weiel D (2016) Multi-scale analysis of porosity in diagenetically altered reservoir sandstone from the Permian Rotliegend (Germany). J Pet Sci Eng 140:128–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2016.01.019
Doostmohammadi R, Moosavi M, Mutschler Th, Osan C (2009) Influence of cyclic wetting and drying on swelling behavior of mudstone in south west of Iran. Environ Geol 58:999. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1579-3
Gasparre A, Coop MR (2008) Quantification of the effects of structure on the compression of a stiff clay. Can Geotech J 45:1324–1334. https://doi.org/10.1139/T08-052
Gens A (2010) Soil–environment interactions in geotechnical engineering. Géotechnique 60:3–74. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.9.P.109
Gens A (2013) On the hydromechanical behaviour of argillaceous hard soils-weak rocks. Proc 15th Eur Conf Soil Mech Geotech Eng 71–118
Gens A, Alonso EE (1992) A framework for the behaviour of unsaturated expansive clays. Can Geotech J 29:1013–1032. https://doi.org/10.1139/t92-120
Guerra A, Mokni N, Delage P, Cui YJ, Tang AM, Aimedieu P, Bernier F, Bornert M (2017) In-depth characterisation of a mixture composed of powder/pellets MX80 bentonite. Appl Clay Sci 135:538–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.10.030
Guo SL, Chen BL, Durrani SA (2020) Solid-state nuclear track detectors. In: Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis. Elsevier, pp 307–407
He Y, Cui YJ, Ye WM, Conil N (2017) Effects of wetting-drying cycles on the air permeability of compacted Téguline clay. Eng Geol 228:173–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.08.015
Hemes S, Desbois G, Urai JL, Schröppel B, Schwarz JO (2015) Multi-scale characterization of porosity in Boom Clay (HADES-level, Mol, Belgium) using a combination of X-ray μ-CT, 2D BIB-SEM and FIB-SEM tomography. Microporous Mesoporous Mater 208:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2015.01.022
Hong ZS, Zeng LL, Cui YJ, Cai YQ, Lin C (2012) Compression behaviour of natural and reconstituted clays. Géotechnique 62:291–301. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.10.P.046
Huang PM (1989) Feldspars, olivines, pyroxenes, and amphiboles. In: Minerals in soil environments. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp 975–1050
Jaeggi D, Bossart P, Nussbaum C (2017) The rock mechanical behavior of opalinus clay—20 years of experience in the mont terri rock laboratory. In: Ferrari A, Laloui L (eds) Advances in laboratory testing and modelling of soils and shales (ATMSS). Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 351–356
Kanji MA (2014) Critical issues in soft rocks. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 6:186–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.04.002
Leroueil S, Vaughan PR (1990) The general and congruent effects of structure in natural soils and weak rocks. Géotechnique 40:467–488. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1990.40.3.467
Menaceur H, Delage P, Tang AM, Talandier J (2016) The status of water in swelling shales: an insight from the water retention properties of the callovo-oxfordian claystone. Rock Mech Rock Eng 49:4571–4586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-016-1065-2
Mesri G, Ullrich CR, Choi YK (1978) The rate of swelling of overconsolidated clays subjected to unloading. Géotechnique 28:281–307. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1978.28.3.281
Mohajerani M, Delage P, Monfared M, Tang AM, Sulem J, Gatmiri B (2011) Oedometric compression and swelling behaviour of the Callovo-Oxfordian argillite. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 48:606–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2011.02.016
Monroy R, Zdravkovic L, Ridley A (2010) Evolution of microstructure in compacted London Clay during wetting and loading. Géotechnique 60:105–119. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.8.P.125
Montes HG, Duplay J, Martinez L, Escoffier S, Rousset D (2004) Structural modifications of Callovo-Oxfordian argillite under hydration/dehydration conditions. Appl Clay Sci 25:187–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2003.10.004
Nussbaum C, Bossart P, Amann F, Aubourg C (2011) Analysis of tectonic structures and excavation induced fractures in the Opalinus Clay, Mont Terri underground rock laboratory (Switzerland). Swiss J Geosci 104:187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00015-011-0070-4
Otsu N (1979) A threshold selection method from gray-level histograms. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern 9:62–66
Pakhomova A, Simonova D, Koemets I, Koemets E, Aprilis G, Bykov M, Gorelova L, Fedotenko T, Prakapenka V, Dubrovinsky L (2020) Polymorphism of feldspars above 10 GPa. Nat Commun 11:2721. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16547-4
Pejon OJ, Zuquette LV (2002) Analysis of cyclic swelling of mudrocks. Eng Geol 67:97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(02)00147-3
Pettijohn FJ (1957) Sedimentary rocks. Harper & Brothers, New York
Pineda JA, Alonso EE, Romero E (2014) Environmental degradation of claystones. Géotechnique 64:64–82. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.13.P.056
Pineda J, Romero E, Gómez S, Alonso E (2010) Degradation effects at microstructural scale and their consequences on macroscopic behaviour of a slightly weathered siltstone. In: Geomechanics and Geotechnics. Shanghai, China
Simms PH, Yanful EK (2002) Predicting soil—water characteristic curves of compacted plastic soils from measured pore-size distributions. Géotechnique 52(4):269–278. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2002.52.4.269
Sivakumar V, Tan WC, Murray EJ, McKinley JD (2006) Wetting, drying and compression characteristics of compacted clay. Géotechnique 56:57–62. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2006.56.1.57
Su W, Wang Q, Ye W, Deng YF, Chen YG (2021) Swelling pressure of compacted MX80 bentonite/sand mixture prepared by different methods. Soils Found 61:1142–1150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2021.06.005
Tang AM, Cui YJ (2005) Controlling suction by the vapour equilibrium technique at different temperatures and its application in determining the water retention properties of MX80 clay. 42:10
Thury M, Bossart P (1999) The Mont Terri rock laboratory, a new international research project in a Mesozoic shale formation, in Switzerland. Eng Geol 52:347–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(99)00015-0
Tsang CF, Bernier F, Davies C (2005) Geohydromechanical processes in the Excavation Damaged Zone in crystalline rock, rock salt, and indurated and plastic clays—in the context of radioactive waste disposal. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 42:109–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2004.08.003
Wang Q, Cui YJ, Tang AM, Li XL, Ye WM (2014) Time- and density-dependent microstructure features of compacted bentonite. Soils Found 54:657–666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2014.06.021
Wang Q, Su W, Cui YJ, Ye WM, Chen YG (2021) Residual lateral stress effect on the swelling pressure measurements of compacted bentonite/claystone mixture. Eng Geol 295:106437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106437
Ye WM, Zhang YW, Chen YG, Chen B, Cui YJ (2013) Experimental investigation on the thermal volumetric behavior of highly compacted GMZ01 Bent. Appl Clay Sci 83–84:210–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2013.09.001
Yin ZY, Chang CS, Hicher PY, Wang JH (2011) Micromechanical analysis of the behavior of stiff clay. Acta Mech Sin 27:1013–1022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10409-011-0507-z
Zeng LL, Cui YJ, Conil N, Zghondi J, Armand G, Talandier J (2017) Experimental study on swelling behaviour and microstructure changes of natural stiff Teguline clays upon wetting. Can Geotech J 54:700–709. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0250
Zhai Q, Rahardjo H, Satyanaga A (2018) A pore-size distribution function based method for estimation of hydraulic properties of sandy soils. Eng Geol 246:288–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.09.031
Zhai Q, Rahardjo H, Satyanaga A, Dai G, Zhuang Y (2020) Framework to estimate the soil-water characteristic curve for soils with different void ratios. Bull Eng Geol Environ 79:4399–4409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01825-8
Zhang J, Huang B, Rao XB, He XM (2011) Experimental research of structural effects on expansion characteristics of expansive rock. J Lanzhou Univ Nat Sci 47:283–286
Zhang F, Cui YJ, Ye WM (2018) Distinguishing macro- and micro-pores for materials with different pore populations. Géotechnique Lett 8:102–110. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgele.17.00144
Zhang F, Cui YJ, Conil N, Talandier J (2020) Assessment of swelling pressure determination methods with intact callovo-oxfordian claystone. Rock Mech Rock Eng 53:1879–1888. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-019-02016-y
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2019YFC1509900), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42002289, 42172298, 41807237), Project funded by China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2022M722428) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (22120210039) for their financial support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Qiong WANG: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Resources, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition. Yihe XU: Software, Validation, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Visualization. Wei SU: Validation, Writing – Review & Editing, Funding acquisition. Weimin YE: Supervision, Funding acquisition. Yonggui CHEN: Supervision. Huaquan LAI: Resources. All authors reviewed the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, Q., Xu, Y., Su, W. et al. Enhancement mechanism of remolding on the swelling behavior of expansive stiff clay: from microstructure perspective. Environ Earth Sci 82, 378 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-023-11071-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-023-11071-2