Abstract
Soil leakage loss is a special form of soil and water loss in karst areas and has been raising the research interest in the recent years. Owing to the invisibility and distinctiveness of soil leakage loss, how to effectively monitor it has become a tough problem. Through analyzing the existing methods, this study aims to assess their contributions to and deficiencies in understanding the law of soil leakage loss in karst areas. The results are produced as follows: (i) Simulation tests have given insights into the law and influencing factors of soil leakage loss under the double-layer karst structure, yet the small devices, the bedrock and soil transport, and the lack of vegetation, all impair their representativeness of the leakage loss realities of the vast karst area in the nature. (ii) 137Cs tracer is beneficial to quantitatively trace soil erosion in homogeneous soil and to confirm the existence of soil leakage loss phenomenon in heterogeneous soil of karst rocky desertification regions, whereas the exact amount of loss is hard to obtain in karst heterogeneous soil through this method. (iii) Cave dripping tracer has offered a more scientific way to reveal the law of soil leakage loss and estimate the loss amount, but the amount measured with this method has a low accuracy and reliability resulted from the unknown surface seepage area. (iv) Scratching and erosion pins, with the mathematical models, are practicable to calculate the soil and water leakage loss. Yet several obstacles low their efficiency and reliability: the errors in the total soil erosion and the transportation ratio, and the unreliability in short-time monitoring. The other methods, underground river sediment monitoring and underground water turbidity, are also applicable in monitoring the SLL in karst areas, but still confront some obstacles, including the uncertain uniqueness of the underground river, the unreasonable sediment transport ratio, and the turbidity meter limitation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bai X (2011) Assessment of sediment and erosion rates by using the caesium-137 technique in a Chinese polygonal karst depression. Environ Earth Sci 64:2151–2158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1042-8
Bai X, Zhang X, Wang S, Yan D, Li H (2009) Estimating sediment deposition rates by the Cs-137 technique in karst depression of Chongtou, Puding county Guizho province. Earth Environ 37:142–146. https://doi.org/10.14050/j.cnki.1672-9250.2009.02.015
Bai X, Zhang X, Chen H, He Y (2010) Using 137Cs fingerprint technique to estimate sediment deposition and erosion rates from Yongkang depression in karst region of Southwest China. Land Degrad Dev 21:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.983
Barakat A, Meddah R, Afdali M et al (2018) Physicochemical and microbial assessment of spring water quality for drinking supply in Piedmont of Béni-Mellal Atlas (Morocco). Phys Chem Earth 104:39–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2018.01.006
Canora F, Fidelibus MD, Sciortino A, Spilotro G (2008) Variation of infiltration rate through karstic surfaces due to land use changes: a case study in Murgia (SE-Italy). Eng Geol 99:210–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.11.018
Dai Q, Yan J (2018) Research progress of karst rocky desertification and soil erosion in southwest China. J Soil Water Conserv 32:1–9. https://doi.org/10.13870/j.cnki.stbcxb.2018.02.001
Dai Q, Liu Z, Shao H, Yang Z (2015) Karst bare slope soil erosion and soil quality: a simulation case study. Solid Earth 7:1639–1671. https://doi.org/10.5194/sed-7-1639-2015
Dai Q, Peng X, Zhao L, Shao H, Yang Z (2017) Effects of underground pore fissures on soil erosion and sediment yield on karst slopes. Land Degrad Dev 28:1922–1932. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2711
Dai Q, Peng X, Wang P, Li C, Shao H (2018) Surface erosion and underground leakage of yellow soil on slopes in karst regions of southwest China. Land Degrad Dev 29:2438–2448. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2960
Feng T, Chen H, Zhang W, Nie Y, Wang K (2011) 137Cs profile distribution character and its implication for soil erosion on karst slopes of northwest Guangxi. Chin J Appl Ecol 22:593–599. https://doi.org/10.13287/j.1001-9332.2011.0123
Feng T, Chen H, Polyakov VO, Wang K, Zhang X, Zhang W (2016) Soil erosion rates in two karst peak–cluster depression basins of northwest Guangxi, China: comparison of the RUSLE model with 137Cs measurements. Geomorphology 253:217–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.10.013
Ford DC, Williams PW (2007) Karst hydrogeology and geomorphology. Wiley, Chichester, p 562
Gao R, Dai Q, Gan Y, Peng X, Yan Y (2019) The production processes and characteristics of nitrogen pollution in bare sloping farmland in a karst region. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26:26900–26911. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05838-z
Gholami V, Sahour H, Hadian MA (2020) Mapping soil erosion rates using self-organizing map (SOM) and geographic information system (GIS) on hillslopes. Earth Sci Inf 13:1175–1185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-020-00499-w
Gholami V, Sahour H, Amri MAH (2021) Soil erosion modeling using erosion pins and artificial neural networks. CATENA 196:104902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104902
Gong C (2009) Study on soil and water erosion of small watered scale in three gorges based on using 137Cs technique: a case study of the Yangjiagou small washed in Wanzhou. Southwest University, Chongqing
Gu J, Liu X, Lu L et al (2016) An Analysis of the Relationship between Water Turbidity and Sediment in Ningxia Yellow River. China Rural Water Hydropower 11:35–37
Guo Y, Zhou J (2012) Underground soil and water leakage in karst rocky desertification areas. Sci Soil Water Conserv 10:71–76
He G (2006) The study of particle size effects of 137Cs analysis in the purple soil and yellow earth. Sichuan University, Chengdu
Huang X, Zhou Y, Wang S, Zhang Z (2019) Occurrence mechanism and prediction of rocky land degradation in karst mountainous basins with the aid of GIS technology, a study case in Houzhai River Basin in southwestern China. Environ Earth Sci 78:217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8224-1
Jiang Z, Luo W, Deng Y, Cao J, Qin X, Li Y, Yang Q (2014) The leakage of water and soil in the karst peak cluster depression and its prevention and treatment. Acta Geoscientica Sinica 35:535–542. https://doi.org/10.3975/cagsb.2014.05.02
Ju Z, Yan D, Wei A, Zhang J (2018) Sediment delivery ratio and soil erosion quantity on Lingjiao pond small watershed in the three gorges reservoir region. J Sediment Res 43:67–72. https://doi.org/10.16239/j.cnki.0468-155x.2018.02.011
Li J, Xiong K (2011) Particle analysis of soil in karst caves and its significance for water and soil erosion. J Guizhou Norm Univ (Nat Sci) 29:16–18. https://doi.org/10.16614/j.cnki.issn1004-5570.2011.02.004
Li D, Cui Z, Liu G, Feng J, Cao J (2001) Formation and evolution of karst weathering crust on limestone and its cyclic significance. Carsologica Sinica 20:183–188
Li Y, Shao J, Wang S, Wei C (2006) A conceptual analysis of karst ecosystem fragility. Prog Geogr 25:1–9
Li H, Zhang X, Wang K, Wei A (2009) 137Cs distribution characteristics at a talus-type karst slope in northwestern Guangxi. J Soil Water Conserv 23:42–47. https://doi.org/10.13870/j.cnki.stbcxb.2009.03.019
Li H, Zhang X, Bai X, He Y, Wang K (2010) Study on sediment deposition in a peak–cluster depression catchment using 137Cs technique in karst hilly area, NW Guangxi. J Sediment Res. https://doi.org/10.16239/j.cnki.0468-155x.2010.01.012
Li J, Xiong K, Wang X (2012) Observation of subterranean soil and water loss of karst area. Soil Water Conserv China 363:38–39,40. https://doi.org/10.14123/j.cnki.swcc.2012.06.019
Li Y, Liu Z, Lü X, Cao Y, Dong X (2016) Physicochemical properties of underground leakage water and soil in rocky desertification area of Guizhou, China. J Soil Water Conserv 30:111–117. https://doi.org/10.13870/j.cnki.stbcxb.2016.06.020
Li J, Pu J, Zhang T, Xiong X, Wang S, Huo W, Yuan D (2020) Measurable sediment discharge from a karst underground river in southwestern China: temporal variabilities and controlling factors. Environ Earth Sci 79:90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-8826-7
Liu L (2008) Tracing of 137Cs on soil erosion in Chenggong, Yunnan. Nangjing Normal University, Nanjing
Liu Z (2009) The spatial distribution of 137Cs reference inventory and its influence factors on the Loess plateau. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, XianYang
Liu Z, Dai Q, Ni J, Yang Z (2013) Bare slope soil erosion experimental research under the condition of artificial rainfall precipitation in karst area. J Soil Water Conserv 27:12–16. https://doi.org/10.13870/j.cnki.stbcxb.2013.05.031
Luo W, Jiang Z, Han Q, Cao J, Pei J (2008) Soil distribution and erosion characteristics of different landform positions in karst peak–cluster depression. Soil Water Conserv China 12:46–49. https://doi.org/10.14123/j.cnki.swcc.2008.12.002
Luo W, Jiang Z, Ou Y, Li Y (2013) Typical soil and water conservation technology of karst peak–cluster depression. Soil Water Conserv China 370:37–41. https://doi.org/10.14123/j.cnki.swcc.2013.01.019
Luo W, Zhang H, Jiang Z, Jin K, Li Y, Wang Z (2014) The difference in soil erosion in different environments of karst peak–cluster depression and the study of soil erosion prevention: a case study of Guohua karst ecological experimental site, Guangxi. Acta Geoscientica Sinica 35:473–480. https://doi.org/10.3975/cagsb.2014.04.09
Neupane S, Vogel JR, Storm DE et al (2015) Development of a turbidity prediction methodology for runoff-erosion models. Water Air Soil Pollut 226:415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-015-2679-9
Peng X, Dai Q, Ding G, Li C (2019) Role of underground leakage in soil, water and nutrient loss from a rock-mantled slope in the karst rocky desertification area. J Hydrol 578:124086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124086
Peng X, Wang X, Dai Q, Ding G, Li C (2020) Soil structure and nutrient contents in underground fissures in a rock-mantled slope in the karst rocky desertification area. Environ Earth Sci 79:3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8708-z
Rügner H, Schwientek M, Beckingham B et al (2013) Turbidity as a proxy for total suspended solids (TSS) and particle facilitated pollutant transport in catchments. Environ Earth Sci 69:373–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2307-1
Ruzycki EM, Axler RP, Host GE, Henneck JR, Will NR (2014) Estimating sediment and nutrient loads in four Western Lake Superior streams. JAWRA J Am Water Resour Assoc 50(5):1138–1154. https://doi.org/10.1111/jawr.12175
Schiperski F (2018) Turbidity as an indicator of contamination in karst springs: a short review. In: White W, Herman J, Herman E, Rutigliano M (eds) Karst groundwater contamination and public health. Advances in karst science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51070-5_14
Tang Y, Zhang X, She T, Yang P, Wang J (2009) Wet sieving for stability of brown clayey in karst rocky desertification area in Puding county, Guizhou province. J Eng Geol 17:817–822
Tang Y, Zhang X, She T, Yang P, Wang J (2010) The mechanism of underground leakage of soil in karst rocky desertification areas: A case in Chenqi small watershed, Puding, Guizhou province. Carsologica Sinica 29:121–127
Tang Y, Sun K, Zhang X (2016) Microstructure changes of red clay during its loss and leakage in the karst rocky desertification area. Environ Earth Sci 75:537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5419-6
Wang H (2009) Study on soil erosion mechanism of the ecological rehabilitation of typical karst unit in Guizhou. Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang
Wang K, Su Y, Zeng F, Chen H, Xiao R (2008) Ecological process and vegetation restoration in karst region of southwest China. Res Agric Mod 29:641–645
Wei X (2011) The study on the characteristics and mechanism of soil erosion in karst valley area, Chongqing. Southwest University, Chongqing
Wei X (2013) Monitoring of soil erosion and nutrient loss on the mountain slope in karst valley region based on isotope. Trans Chin Soc Agric Eng 29:128–136. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-6819.2013.22.015
Wei X, Yuan D, Xie S (2010) Study on soil erosion and loss on slope in karst mountain vally area of Chongqing valley with 137Cs and soil nutrient elements. J Soil Water Conserv 24(16–19):23. https://doi.org/10.13870/j.cnki.stbcxb.2010.06.013
Wei X, Xie D, Ni J, Su C (2015) Soil erosion and loss on slope in karst valley area, Chongqing with 137Cs. J Basic Sci Eng 23:462–473. https://doi.org/10.16058/j.issn.1005-0930.2015.03.005
Wu Q, Liang H, Xiong K, Li R (2019) Eco-benefits coupling of agroforestry and soil and water conservation under KRD environment: frontier theories and outlook. Agroforest Syst 93:1927–1938. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0301-z
Xiong K, Li J, Long M (2012) Features of soil and water loss and key issues in demonstration areas for combating karst rocky desertification. Acta Geographica Sinca 67:878–888
Xiong K, Yin C, Ji H (2018) Soil erosion and chemical weathering in a region with typical karst topography. Environ Earth Sci 77:500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7675-0
Xu Z, Huang R, Tang Z, Fei W (2005) A review of advances and outstanding issues in research on the forming mechanism of laterite in south China. Earth Environ 33:29–36. https://doi.org/10.14050/j.cnki.1672-9250.2005.04.006
Yan D, Wen A, Bao Y, Zhang X (2008) The distribution of 137Cs in hilly upland soil on the Qianzhong karst plateau. Earth Environ 36:342–347. https://doi.org/10.14050/j.cnki.1672-9250.2008.04.013
Yan Y, Dai Q, Yuan Y, Peng X, Zhao L, Yang J (2018) Effects of rainfall intensity on runoff and sediment yields on bare slopes in a karst area, SW China. Geoderma 330(15):30–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.05.026
Yang Z, Dai Q, Huang Q, Wu X (2010) Experimental study of runoff processes on typical karst slope. J Soil Water Conserv 24:78–81. https://doi.org/10.13870/j.cnki.stbcxb.2010.04.022
Yang P, Tang Y, Zhou N, Wang J, She T, Zhang X (2011) Characteristics of red clay creep in karst caves and loss leakage of soil in the karst rocky desertification area of Puding County, Guizhou, China. Environ Earth Sci 63:543–549. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-010-0721-1
Yue K (2016) Prevention technology demonstration of subterranean soil erosion in the typical rocky desertification area of south China karst. Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang
Zhai Y (2016) Distribution characteristics of 137Cs in soil under different vegetation conditions in Xinghai basin. Qinghai Normal University, Qinghai
Zhang Z (2004) Research on soil erosion and changes of fertility by using 137Cs tracer on Miyun reservoir. Capital Normal University, Beijing
Zhang X, Wang S (2016) A discussion on the definition of soil leaking in a karst catchment. Carsologica Sinica 35:602–603. https://doi.org/10.11932/karst20160517
Zhang X, Li S, Wang C, Tan W, Zhao Q, Zhang Y, Yan M, Liu Y (1988) An initial approach to measure soil loss amount of farmland on weir and mound using 137Cs method. Bull Soil Water Conserv 8(18–22):29. https://doi.org/10.13961/j.cnki.stbctb.1988.05.006
Zhang X, Higgitt DL, Walling DE (1991) A preliminary assessment of the potential to use 137Cs to estimate the rates of soil erosion in the loess plateau of China. Geochimica. https://doi.org/10.19700/j.0379-1726.1991.03.002
Zhang X, Wang S, He X, Wang Y, He Y (2007) Soil creeping in weathering crusts of carbonate rocks and underground soil losses on karst slopes. Earth Environ 35:2002–2006. https://doi.org/10.14050/j.cnki.1672-9250.2007.03.007
Zhang X, Wang S, Cao J (2009) Mass balance of silicate minerals in soils and soil losses in karst mountainous regions of southwest China. Earth Environ 37:97–102. https://doi.org/10.1450/j.cnki.1672-9250.2009.02.017
Zhang X, Bai X, Liu X (2011) Application of a 137Cs fingerprinting responses of sediment deposition of a karst depression to deforestation in the catchment of the Guizhou Plateau, China. Sci China Earth Sci 54:431–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-010-4105-x
Zhou Y (2019) Soil and water leaking characteristrics in Karst depressions and its prevention and control technology test—a case study of Longlie depression, Longhetun in Pingguo county, Guangxi. Nanning Normal University, Nanning
Zhou J, Tang Y, Zhang X, She T, Yang P, Wang J (2012a) The influence of water content on soil erosion in the desertification area of Guizhou, China. Carbonates Evaporites 27:185–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-012-0104-7
Zhou J, Tang Y, Yang P, Zhang X, Zhou N, Wang J (2012b) Inference of creep mechanism in underground soil loss of karst conduits I. Conceptual model. Nat Hazards 62:1191–1215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0143-3
Zhou B, Xu Q, Li Y (2016) On new technology of sediment real-time monitoring in three gorges reservoir. J China Hydrol 36(04):53–57
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by grants from the Key Project of Science and Technology Program of Guizhou Province: Model and Technology demonstration for from the karst desertification control (No. 5411 2017 Qiankehe Pingtai Rencai), the National Research and Development Program of China in the 13th Five-year Plan: Ecological industry model and integrated technology demonstration for the rocky desertification control of the karst plateau (2016YFC0502607), the World Top Discipline Program of Guizhou Province: Karst Ecoenvironment Sciences (No. 125 2019 Qianjiao Keyan Fa) and the Science and Technology Support Plan in Guizhou Province of China (Grant No. Qiankehe Zhicheng [2017]2872); Xiong Kangning's studio of postgraduate supervisors for the karst environment of Guizhou Province (Grant no. 04 2016 Qianjiao Yanhe GZS Zi).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wu, Q., Liang, H., Xiong, K. et al. Effectiveness of monitoring methods for soil leakage loss in karst regions. Environ Earth Sci 80, 278 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09593-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09593-8