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Longer-Term Mental Health Consequences of COVID-19 Infection: Moderation by Race and Socioeconomic Status

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Abstract

Objective

While evidence suggests that the mental health symptoms of COVID-19 can persist for several months following infection, little is known about the longer-term mental health effects and whether certain sociodemographic groups may be particularly impacted. This cross-sectional study aimed to characterize the longer-term mental health consequences of COVID-19 infection and examine whether such consequences are more pronounced in Black people and people with lower socioeconomic status.

Methods

277 Black and White adults (age ≥ 30 years) with a history of COVID-19 (tested positive ≥ 6 months prior to participation) or no history of COVID-19 infection completed a 45-minute online questionnaire battery.

Results

People with a history of COVID-19 had greater depressive (d = 0.24), anxiety (d = 0.34), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (d = 0.32), and insomnia (d = 0.31) symptoms than those without a history of COVID-19. These differences remained for anxiety, PTSD, and insomnia symptoms after adjusting for age, sex, race, education, income, employment status, body mass index, and smoking status. No differences were detected for perceived stress and general psychopathology. People with a history of COVID-19 had more than double the odds of clinically significant symptoms of anxiety (OR = 2.22) and PTSD (OR = 2.40). Education, but not race, income, or employment status, moderated relationships of interest such that COVID-19 status was more strongly and positively associated with all the mental health outcomes for those with fewer years of education.

Conclusion

The mental health consequences of COVID-19 may be significant, widespread, and persistent for at least 6 months post-infection and may increase as years of education decreases.

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  1. Department of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 North Blackford Street, LD100E, 46202, Indianapolis, IN, USA

    Michelle K. Williams, Christopher A. Crawford, Tamika C. Zapolski, Adam T. Hirsh & Jesse C. Stewart

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  1. Michelle K. Williams
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Williams, M.K., Crawford, C.A., Zapolski, T.C. et al. Longer-Term Mental Health Consequences of COVID-19 Infection: Moderation by Race and Socioeconomic Status. Int.J. Behav. Med. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-024-10271-9

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