Abstract
Air pollution may adversely affect the function of the central nervous system, but its effects are poorly understood. In this paper, we aim to explore whether ambient air quality is associated with impaired brain function and neurologic diseases. PubMed was used to review literature on neurophysiologic responses to traffic pollution from 1990 to 2018, using the keywords “pollution” OR “traffic pollution, air pollution,” AND “neurophysiologic responses.” A qualitative analysis of 112 articles and their related websites was conducted, and 56 articles were selected for further analysis based on study relevance, quality, reliability, and publication date. These 56 articles were analyzed to determine the association, if any, of air pollutants with neurofunction and neurological diseases. Fourteen articles suggest a link between air pollutants and neurodevelopment (25%). Nine found a relationship between stroke (both ischemic and hemorrhagic) and air pollutants (16%). Three articles found a relationship between headache and pollution (5%), and three found a relationship between multiple sclerosis and pollution (5%). A relationship between neurocognitive function and air pollution was described in 16 articles (28.5%). Seven articles suggested a relationship between air pollution and neurodegenerative diseases (12.5%). Another seven reported a relationship between autonomic functions and pollutants (12.5%), and one suggested that air pollution may have neuropsychological effects (1.7%). One study reported a relationship between decades of exposure to air pollutants and neurotoxicity (1.7%). Therefore, the present study confirms the harmful effect of air pollutants on the brain. We recommend that regulations be enacted to limit exposure to air pollutants to help reduce the problems associated with it.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agarwal KS, Mughal MZ, Upadhyay P, Berry JL, Mawer EB, Puliyel JM (2002) The impact of atmospheric pollution on vitamin D status of infants and toddlers in Delhi, India. Arch Dis Child 87(2):111–113. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.87.2.111
Al-Arfaj AS, Al-Balla SR, Al-Dalaan AN, Al-Saleh SS, Bahabri SA, Mousa MM, Sekeit MA (2002) Prevalence of systemic lupus erythematosus in central Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J 23(1):87–89
Ashtari F, Esmaeil N, Mansourian M, Poursafa P, Mirmosayyeb O, Barzegar M, Pourgheisari H (2018) An 8-year study of people with multiple sclerosis in Isfahan, Iran: association between environmental air pollutants and severity of disease. J Neuroimmunol 319:106–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2018.02.019
Baja ES, Schwartz JD, Wellenius GA, Coull BA, Zanobetti A, Vokonas PS, Suh HH (2010) Traffic-related air pollution and QT interval: modification by diabetes, obesity, and oxidative stress gene polymorphisms in the normative aging study. Environ Health Perspect 118(6):840–846
Bakian AV, Huber RS, Coon H, Gray D, Wilson P, McMahon WM, Renshaw PF (2015) Acute air pollution exposure and risk of suicide completion. Am J Epidemiol 181:295–303. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwu341
Bakulski KM, Rozek LS, Dolinoy DC, Paulson HL, Hu H (2012) Alzheimer’s disease and environmental exposure to lead: the epidemiologic evidence and potential role of epigenetics. Curr Alzheimer Res 9(5):563–573. https://doi.org/10.2174/156720512800617991
Bandeen-Roche K, Glass TA, Bolla KI, Todd AC, Schwartz BS (2009) Cumulative lead dose and cognitive function in older adults. Epidemiology 20(6):831–839. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181b5f100
Bartels AL, Leenders KL (2009) Parkinson’s disease: the syndrome, the pathogenesis and pathophysiology. Cortex 45:915–921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2008.11.010
Bellinger DC (2012) A strategy for comparing the contributions of environmental chemicals and other risk factors to neurodevelopment of children. Environ Health Perspect 120(4):501–507. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104170
Block ML, Calderon-Garciduenas (2009) Air pollution: mechanisms of neuroinflammation and cns disease. Trends Neurosci 32:506–516
Brauer M, Amann M, Burnett RT, Cohen A, Dentener F, Ezzati M, Henderson SB, Krzyzanowski M, Martin RV, Van Dingenen R, van Donkelaar A, Thurston GD (2012) Exposure assessment for estimation of the global burden of disease attributable to outdoor air pollution. Environ Sci Technol 46(2):652–660. https://doi.org/10.1021/es2025752
Breysse PN, Buckley TJ, Williams D, Beck CM, Jo SJ, Merriman B, Kanchanaraksa S, Swartz LJ, Callahan KA, Butz AM, Rand CS, Diette GB, Krishnan JA, Moseley AM, Curtin-Brosnan J, Durkin NB, Eggleston PA (2005) Indoor exposures to air pollutants and allergens in the homes of asthmatic children in inner-city Baltimore. Environ Res 98(2):167–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2004.07.018
Buka I, Koranteng S, Osornio-Vargas AR (2006) The effects of air pollution on the health of children. Paediatr Child Health 8:513–516
Calderon-Garciduenas I, Mora-Tiscareno A, Ontiveros E, Gomez-garza G, Barragan-mejia G, Broadway J, Chapman S, Valencia-salazar G, Jewells V, Maronpot RR et al (2008) Air pollution, cognitive deficits and brain abnormalities: a pilot study with children and dogs. Brain Cogn 68:117–127
Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Serrano-Sierra A, Torres-Jardón R, Zhu H, Yuan Y, Smith D, Delgado-Chávez R, Cross JV, Medina-Cortina H, Kavanaugh M, Guilarte TR (2013) The impact of environmental metals in young urbanites’ brains. Exp Toxicol Pathol 65(5):503–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etp.2012.02.006
Chang CC, Chiu HF, Yang CY (2015) Fine particulate air pollution and outpatient department visits for headache in Taipei, Taiwan. J Toxicol Environ Health A78(8):506–515. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2015.1010465
Chen JC, Schwartz J (2009) Neurobehavioral effects of ambient air pollution on cognitive performance in US adults. Neurotoxicology 30(2):231–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2008.12.011
Cho SP, Song MH, Park YC, Choi HS, Lee KJ (2007) Adaptive noise canceling of electrocardiogram artifacts in single channel electroencephalogram. Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc:3278–3281
Chuang KJ, Coull BA, Zanobetti A, Suh H, Schwartz J, Stone PH, Litonjua A, Speizer FE, Gold DR (2008) Particulate air pollution as a risk factor for st-segment depression in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 118(13):1314–1320
Clark C, Sörqvist P (2014) A 3 year update on the influence of noise on performance and behavior. Noise Health 14(61):292–296. https://doi.org/10.4103/1463-1741.104896
Cohen AJ, Brauer M, Burnett R, Anderson HR, Frostad J, Estep K, Balakrishnan K, Brunekreef B, Dandona L, Dandona R, Feigin V, Freedman G, Hubbell B, Jobling A, Kan H, Knibbs L, Liu Y, Martin R, Morawska L, Pope CA 3rd, Shin H, Straif K, Shaddick G, Thomas M, van Dingenen R, van Donkelaar A, Vos T, Murray CJL, Forouzanfar MH (2017) Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. Lancet 389(10082):1907–1918. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30505-6 Erratum in: Lancet. 2017 Jun 17;389(10087):e15. Erratum in: Lancet. 2018 Apr 21;391(10130):1576
Crüts B, van Etten L, Törnqvist H, Blomberg A, Sandström T, Mills NL, Borm PJ (2008) Exposure to diesel exhaust induces changes in EEG in human volunteers. Part Fibre Toxicol 5:4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-5-4
Devlin RB, Ghio AJ, Kehrl H, Sanders G, Cascio W (2003) Elderly humans exposed to concentrated air pollution particles have decreased heart rate variability. Eur Respir J Suppl 40:76s–80s
Devuyst S, Dutoit T, Stenuit P, Kerkhofs M, Stanus E (2008) Removal of ECG artifacts from eeg using a modified independent component analysis approach. Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc:5204–5207
Dix-Cooper L, Eskenazi B, Romero C, Balmes J, Smith KR (2012) Neurodevelopmental performance among school age children in rural Guatemala is associated with prenatal and postnatal exposure to carbon monoxide, a marker for exposure to woodsmoke. Neurotoxicology 33(2):246–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2011.09.004
Eid A, Zawia N (2016) Consequences of lead exposure, and it’s emerging role as an epigenetic modifier in the aging brain. Neurotoxicology 56:254–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2016.04.006
Elder A, Gelein R, Silva V, Feikert T, Opanashuk L, Carter J, Potter R, Maynard A, Ito Y, Finkelstein J, Oberdörster G (2006) Translocation of inhaled ultrafine manganese oxide particles to the central nervous system. Environ Health Perspect 114(8):1172–1178
Evans GW, Hygge S (2007) Noise and performance in children and adults. In: Luxon L, Prasher D (eds) Noise and its effects. Whurr Publishers, London
Finkelstein MM, Jerrett M (2007) A study of the relationships between parkinson's disease and markers of traffic-derived and environmental manganese air pollution in two canadian cities. Environ Res 104:420–432
Friedrich MJ (2018) Air pollution is greatest environmental threat to health. JAMA 319(11):1085. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.2366
Gatto NM, Henderson VW, Hodis HN, St John JA, Lurmann F, Chen JC, Mack WJ (2014) Components of air pollution and cognitive function in middle-aged and older adults in Los Angeles. Neurotoxicology 40:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2013.09.004
GBD 2013 Risk Factors Collaborators, Forouzanfar MH, Alexander L, Anderson HR, Bachman VF, Biryukov S, Brauer M et al (2015) Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 386(10010):2287–2323. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00128-2
Gold DR, Litonjua A, Schwartz J, Lovett E, Larson A, Nearing B, Allen G, Verrier M, Cherry R, Verrier R (2000) Ambient pollution and heart rate variability. Circulation 101(11):1267–1273
Gold DR, Litonjua AA, Zanobetti A, Coull BA, Schwartz J, MacCallum G, Verrier RL, Nearing BD, Canner MJ, Suh H, Stone PH (2005) Air pollution and ST-segment depression in elderly subjects. Environ Health Perspect 113(7):883–887
Grandjean P, Landrigan PJ (2006) Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. Lancet 368(9553):2167–2178. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69665-7
Guxens M, Sunyer J (2012) A review of epidemiological studies on neuropsychological effects of air pollution. Swiss Med Wkly 141:w13322. Published 2012 Jan 3. https://doi.org/10.4414/smw.2011.13322
Heydarpour P, Amini H, Khoshkish S, Seidkhani H, Sahraian MA, Yunesian M (2014) Potential impact of air pollution on multiple sclerosis in Tehran, Iran. Neuroepidemiology 43(3-4):233–238. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368553
Hong YC, Lee JT, Kim H, Kwon HJ (2002) Air pollution: a new risk factor in ischemic stroke mortality. Stroke 33(9):2165–2169
Jeanjean M, Bind MA, Roux J, Ongagna JC, de Sèze J, Bard D, Leray E (2018) Ozone, NO2 and PM10 are associated with the occurrence of multiple sclerosis relapses. Evidence from seasonal multi-pollutant analyses. Environ Res 163:43–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.01.040
Jiang JA, Chao CF, Chiu MJ, Lee RG, Tseng CL, Lin R (2007) An automatic analysis method for detecting and eliminating ECG artifacts in EEG. Comput Biol Med 37(11):1660–1671
Kim JJ (2004) American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Environmental Health. Ambient air pollution: health hazards to children. Pediatrics 114(6):1699–1707. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2166
Kim KE, Cho D, Park HJ (2016) Air pollution and skin diseases: adverse effects of airborne particulate matter on various skin diseases. Life Sci 152:126–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2016.03.039
Kioumourtzoglou MA, Schwartz JD, Weisskopf MG, Melly SJ, Wang Y, Dominici F, Zanobetti A (2016) Long-term PM2.5 Exposure and Neurological Hospital Admissions in the Northeastern United States. Environ Health Perspect 124(1):23–29. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408973
Kunzli N, Jerrett M, Mack WJ, Beckerman B, Labree L, Gilliland F et al (2005) Ambient air pollution and atherosclerosis in Los Angeles. Environ Health Perspect 113(2):201–206
Landrigan PJ (2017) Air pollution and health. Lancet Public Health 2(1):e4–e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(16)30023-8
Landrigan PJ, Whitworth RH, Baloh RW, Staehling NW, Barthel WF, Rosenblum BF (1975) Neuropsychological dysfunction in children with chronic low-level lead absorption. Lancet 1(7909):708–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(75)91627-x
Laumbach RJ, Kipen HM (2012) Respiratory health effects of air pollution: update on biomass smoke and traffic pollution. J Allergy Clin Immunol 129(1):3–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.11.021
Levesque S, Taetzsch T, Lull ME, Kodavanti U, Stadler K, Wagner A, Johnson JA, Duke L, Kodavanti P, Surace MJ, Block ML (2011) Diesel exhaust activates and primes microglia: air pollution, neuroinflammation, and regulation of dopaminergic neurotoxicity. Environ Health Perspect 119(8):1149–1155. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002986
Lin H, Tao J, Du Y, Liu T, Qian Z, Tian L, Di Q, Zeng W, Xiao J, Guo L, Li X, Xu Y, Ma W (2016) Differentiating the effects of characteristics of PM pollution on mortality from ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes. Int J Hyg Environ Health 219(2):204–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2015.11.002
Loop MS, Kent ST, Al-Hamdan MZ, Crosson WL, Estes SM, Estes MG Jr, Quattrochi DA, Hemmings SN, Wadley VG, McClure LA (2013) Fine particulate matter and incident cognitive impairment in the REasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) cohort. PLoS One 8(9):e75001. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075001 Erratum in: PLoS One. 2015;10(4):e0125137
Lucchini RG, Guazzetti S, Zoni S, Donna F, Peter S, Zacco A, Salmistraro M, Bontempi E, Zimmerman NJ, Smith DR (2012) Tremor, olfactory and motor changes in Italian adolescents exposed to historical ferro-manganese emission. Neurotoxicology 33(4):687–696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2012.01.005
Mazumdar M, Bellinger DC, Gregas M, Abanilla K, Bacic J, Needleman HL (2011) Low-level environmental lead exposure in childhood and adult intellectual function: a follow-up study. Environ Health 10:24. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-10-24
Mills NL, Finlayson AE, Gonzalez MC, Törnqvist H, Barath S, Vink E, Goudie C, Langrish JP, Söderberg S, Boon NA, Fox KA, Donaldson K, Sandström T, Blomberg A, Newby DE (2011) Diesel exhaust inhalation does not affect heart rhythm or heart rate variability. Heart 97(7):544–550
Mukamal KJ, Wellenius GA, Suh HH, Mittleman MA (2009) Weather and air pollution as triggers of severe headaches [published correction appears in Neurology 72(10):922–927. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000344152.56020.94
Narayan KM, Ali MK, Koplan JP (2010) Global noncommunicable diseases—where worlds meet. N Engl J Med 363(13):1196–1198. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1002024
Needham LL, Wang RY (2002) Analytic considerations for measuring environmental chemicals in breast milk. Environ Health Perspect 110(6):A317–A324. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.021100317
Ng CF, Stickley A, Konishi S, Watanabe C (2016) Ambient air pollution and suicide in Tokyo, 2001-2011. J Affect Disord 201:194–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.006
Oikonen M, Laaksonen M, Laippala P, Oksaranta O, Lilius EM, Lindgren S, Rantio-Lehtimäki A, Anttinen A, Koski K, Erälinna JP (2003) Ambient air quality and occurrence of multiple sclerosis relapse. Neuroepidemiology 22(1):95–99. https://doi.org/10.1159/000067108
Palacios N, Fitzgerald K, Roberts AL, Hart JE, Weisskopf MG, Schwarzschild MA, Ascherio A, Laden F (2014) A prospective analysis of airborne metal exposures and risk of Parkinson disease in the nurses’ health study cohort. Environ Health Perspect 122(9):933–938. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307218
Park SK, O'neill MS, Vokonas PS, Sparrow D, Schwartz J (2005) Effects of air pollution on heart rate variability: the va normative aging study. Environ Health Perspect 113(3):304–309
Perera FP, Li Z, Whyatt R, Hoepner L, Wang S, Camann D, Rauh V (2009) Prenatal airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure and child IQ at age 5 years. Pediatrics 124(2):e195–e202. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-3506
Perera FP, Wheelock K, Wang Y, Tang D, Margolis AE, Badia G, Cowell W, Miller RL, Rauh V, Wang S, Herbstman JB (2018) Combined effects of prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and material hardship on child ADHD behavior problems. Environ Res 160:506–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.09.002
Power MC, Weisskopf MG, Alexeeff SE, Coull BA, Spiro A, Schwartz J (2011) Traffic-related air pollution and cognitive function in a cohort of older men. Environ Health Perspect 119(5):682–687
Power MC, Kioumourtzoglou M-A, Hart JE, Okereke OI, Laden F, Weisskopf MG (2015) The relation between past exposure to fine particulate air pollution and prevalent anxiety: observational cohort study. Br Med J 350. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h1111
Qiu H, Sun S, Tsang H, Wong CM, Lee RS, Schooling CM, Tian L (2017) Fine particulate matter exposure and incidence of stroke: a cohort study in Hong Kong. Neurology 88(18):1709–1717. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003903
Qureshi AA, Tan X, Reis JC, Badr MZ, Papasian CJ, Morrison DC, Qureshi N (2011) Inhibition of nitric oxide in LPS-stimulated macrophages of young and senescent mice by δ-tocotrienol and quercetin. Lipids Health Dis 10:239. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-511X-10-239
Riojas-Rodríguez H, Solís-Vivanco R, Schilmann A, Montes S, Rodríguez S, Ríos C, Rodríguez-Agudelo Y (2010) Intellectual function in Mexican children living in a mining area and environmentally exposed to manganese. Environ Health Perspect 118(10):1465–1470. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0901229
Rugg-gunn FJ, Simister RJ, Squirrell M, Holdright DR, Duncan JS (2004) Cardiac arrhythmias in focal epilepsy: a prospective long-term study. Lancet 364(9452):2212–2219
Schwartz J, Litonjua A, Suh H, Verrier M, Zanobetti A, Syring M, Nearing B, Verrier R, Stone P, MacCallum G, Speizer FE, Gold DR (2005) Traffic related pollution and heart rate variability in a panel of elderly subjects. Thorax 60(6):455–461. https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2004.024836
Sheldon TL, Sankaran C (2017) The impact of Indonesian forest fires on Singaporean pollution and health. Am Econ Rev Am Econ Assoc 107(5):526–529. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20171134
Stansfeld SA, Berglund B, Clark C, Lopez-Barrio I, Fischer P, Ohrström E, Haines MM, Head J, Hygge S, van Kamp I, Berry BF, RANCH study team (2005) Aircraft and road traffic noise and children’s cognition and health: a cross-national study. Lancet 365(9475):1942–1949. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66660-3
Stewart WF, Schwartz BS, Davatzikos C, Shen D, Liu D, Wu X, Todd AC, Shi W, Bassett S, Youssem D (2006) Past adult lead exposure is linked to neurodegeneration measured by brain MRI. Neurology 66(10):1476–1484. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000216138.69777.15
Suglia SF, Gryparis A, Wright RO, Schwartz J, Wright RJ (2008) Association of black carbon with cognition among children in a prospective birth cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 167(3):280–286
Suh HH, Zzanobetti A (2010) Exposure error masks the relationship between traffic-related air pollution and heart rate variability. J Occup Environ Med 52(7):685–692
Suwa T, Hogg JC, Quinlan KB, Ohgami A, Vincent R, Van Eeden SF (2002) Particulate air pollution induces progression of atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 39(6):935–942
Szyszkowicz M (2008) Ambient air pollution and daily emergency department visits for headache in Ottawa, Canada. Headache 48(7):1076–1081. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-4610.2007.01039.x
Szyszkowicz M, Kousha T, Kingsbury M, Colman I (2016) Air pollution and emergency department visits for depression: a multicity case-crossover study. Environ Health Insights 10:155–161. https://doi.org/10.4137/EHI.S40493
Volk HE, Lurmann F, Penfold B, Hertz-Picciotto I, McConnell R (2013) Traffic-related air pollution, particulate matter, and autism. JAMA Psychiatry 70(1):71–77. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.266
Wang B, Feng WY, Wang M, Shi JW, Zhang F, Ouyang H, Zhao YL, Chai ZF, Huang YY, Xie YN, Wang HF, Wang J (2007) Transport of intranasally instilled fine Fe2O3 particles into the brain: micro-distribution, chemical states, and histopathological observation. Biol Trace Elem Res 118(3):233–243
Wellenius GA, Schwartz J, Mittleman MA (2005) Air pollution and hospital admissions for ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke among medicare beneficiaries. Stroke 36(12):2549–2553. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000189687.78760.47
Wellenius GA, Burger MR, Coull BA, Schwartz J, Suh HH, Koutrakis P, Schlaug G, Gold DR, Mittleman MA (2012) Ambient air pollution and the risk of acute ischemic stroke. Arch Intern Med 172(3):229–234. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2011.732
Willis AW, Evanoff BA, Lian M, Galarza A, Wegrzyn A, Schootman M, Racette BA (2010) Metal emissions and urban incident Parkinson disease: a community health study of Medicare beneficiaries by using geographic information systems. Am J Epidemiol 172(12):1357–1363. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwq303
Zeng Y, Gu D, Purser J, Hoenig H, Christakis N (2010) Associations of environmental factors with elderly health and mortality in China. Am J Public Health 100(2):298–305. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.154971
Bellou V, Belbasis L, Tzoulaki I, Evangelou E (2018) Risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus: An exposure-wide umbrella review of meta-analyses. PLoS ONE. 13:e0194127. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194127
Perera FP, Wheelock K, Wang Y, Tang D, Margolis AE, Badia G, Cowell W, Miller RL, Rauh V, Wang S, Herbstman JB (2018) Combined effects of prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and material hardship on child ADHD behavior problems. Environ Res 160:506–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.09.002
Clark C, Sörqvist P (2012) A 3 year update on the influence of noise on performance and behavior. Noise Health 14(61):292–296. https://doi.org/10.4103/1463-1741.104896
Oikonen MK, Erälinna JP (2008) Beta-interferon protects multiple sclerosis patients against enhanced susceptibility to infections caused by poor air quality. Neuroepidemiology 30(1):13–19. https://doi.org/10.1159/000113301
Fakhri AA, Ilic LM, Wellenius GA, Urch B, Silverman F, Gold DR, Mittleman MA (2009) Autonomic effects of controlled fine particulate exposure in young healthy adults: effect modification by ozone. Environ Health Perspect 117(8):1287–1292. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0900541
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Amjad Kallel
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Aldraihem, M.O., Al-Ghamdi, F., Murtaza, G. et al. Air pollution and performance of the brain. Arab J Geosci 13, 1158 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-06119-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-06119-7