Abstract
Adolescents involved in the juvenile legal system (JLS) report high rates of traumatic event exposure and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Due to such elevated rates of exposure to potentially traumatic events and posttraumatic stress, it has been recommended that adolescents involved in the JLS receive access to trauma-focused screening upon each contact with the system. Implementing trauma-focused screening within the JLS raises several considerations for systems who have yet to implement this evidence-based practice. This article applies the Exploration, Preparation, Implementation, and Sustainment (EPIS) framework to discuss important decisions and potential ethical issues that arise when trauma-focused screening is implemented within the JLS, from the initial planning stages, to implementation, to long-term sustainment. This article discusses decision points that JLS leadership and administrators must consider when determining whether to implement trauma-focused screening or in the initial stages of implementation, as well as several practical suggestions for individual practitioners who work within the JLS, including clinical and non-clinical staff.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aarons, G. A., Hurlburt, M., & Horwitz, S. M. (2011). Advancing a conceptual model of evidence-based practice implementation in public service sectors. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 38(1), 4–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-010-0327-7
Abram, K. M., Teplin, L. A., Charles, D. R., Longworth, S. L., McClelland, G. M., & Dulcan, M. K. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder and trauma in youth in juvenile detention. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(4), 403–410. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.4.403
Ariga, M., Uehara, T., Takeuchi, K., Ishige, Y., Nakano, R., & Mikuni, M. (2008). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in delinquent female adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 49(1), 79–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01817.x
Auguste, E., Bowdring, M., Kasparek, S. W., McPhee, J., Tabachnick, A. R., Tung, I., & Galan, C. (2022). Psychology’s contributions to anti-blackness in the United States within psychological research, criminal justice, and mental health. Perspectives on Psychological Science. Psychology’s contributions to anti-Blackness in the United States within psychological research, criminal justice, and mental health
Baglivio, M. T. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences, delinquency, and health. Routledge.
Belenko, S., Knight, D., Wasserman, G. A., Dennis, M. L., Wiley, T., Taxman, F. S., Oser, C., Dembo, R., Robertson, A. A., & Sales, J. (2017). The juvenile justice behavioral health services cascade: A new framework for measuring unmet substance use treatment services needs among adolescent offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 74, 80–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2016.12.012
Bennett, D. C., & Kerig, P. K. (2014). Investigating the construct of trauma-related acquired callousness among delinquent youth: Differences in emotion processing. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27(4), 415–422. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21931
Branson, C. E., Baetz, C. L., Horwitz, S. M. C., & Hoagwood, K. E. (2017). Trauma-informed juvenile justice systems: A systematic review of definitions and core components. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9, 635–646. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000255
Brogan, L., Haney-Caron, E., NeMoyer, A., & DeMatteo, D. (2015). Applying the risk-needs-responsivity (RNR) model to juvenile justice. Criminal Justice Review, 40(3), 277–302. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016814567312
Buffington, K., Dierkhising, C. B., & Marsh, S. C. (2010). Ten things every juvenile court judge should know about trauma and delinquency. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 61(3), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6988.2010.01044.x
Charak, R., Byllesby, B. M., Roley, M. E., Claycomb, M. A., Durham, T. A., Ross, J., Armour, C., & Elhai, J. D. (2016). Latent classes of childhood poly-victimization and associations with suicidal behavior among adult trauma victims: Moderating role of anger. Child Abuse and Neglect, 62, 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.10.010
Choi, K. R., McCreary, M., Ford, J. D., Rahmanian Koushkaki, S., Kenan, K. N., & Zima, B. T. (2019). Validation of the traumatic events screening inventory for ACEs. Pediatrics, 143(4), e20182546. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-2546
Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., Jankowski, K., Rosenberg, S., Kodya, S., & Wolford, G. L. (2016). A randomized implementation study of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for adjudicated teens in residential treatment facilities. Child Maltreatment, 21, 156–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559515624775
Crosby, S. (2016). Trauma-Informed Approaches to Juvenile Justice: A Critical Race Perspective., 67(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfcj.12052
Dierkhising, C. B., & Branson, C. E. (2016). Looking forward: A research and policy agenda for creating trauma-informed juvenile justice systems. Journal of Juvenile Justice, 5(1), 14–30.
Eklund, K., Rossen, E., Koriakin, T., Chafouleas, S. M., & Resnick, C. (2018). A systematic review of trauma screening measures for children and adolescents. School Psychology Quarterly, 33, 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000244
Essential Elements of a Trauma-informed Juvenile Justice System. (2016). NCTSN Justice Coordinating Committee. http://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/assets/pdfs/jj_ee_final.pdf
Etten, T., & Petrone, R. (1994). Sharing data and information in juvenile justice: Legal, ethical, and practical considerations. 45(3), 65–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6988.1994.tb01473.x
Ezell, J. M., Richardson, M., Salari, S., & Henry, J. A. (2018). Implementing trauma-informed practice in juvenile justice systems: What can courts learn from child welfare interventions? Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 11(4), 507–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-018-0223-y
Finkelhor, D. (2018). Screening for adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): Cautions and suggestions. Child Abuse & Neglect, 85, 174–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.07.016
Finkelhor, D., Hamby, S. L., Ormrod, R., & Turner, H. (2005). The juvenile victimization questionnaire: Reliability, validity, and national norms. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29, 383–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.11.001
Ford, J. D. (2008). Traumatic victimization in childhood and persistent problems with oppositional-defiance. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 6(1), 25–58. https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v06n01_03
Ford, J. D., Grasso, D. J., Hawke, J., & Chapman, J. F. (2013). Poly-victimization among juvenile justice-involved youths. Child Abuse and Neglect, 37(10), 788–800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.01.005
Ford, J. D., Kerig, P. K., Desai, N., & Feierman, J. (2016). Psychosocial interventions for traumatized youth in the juvenile justice system: Research, evidence base, and clinical/legal challenges. OJJDP Journal of Juvenile Justice, 5(1), 31–49.
Forenza, B. (2016). Opportunity role structure, social support, and leadership process of foster youth advisory board participation. Journal of Community Psychology, 44(7), 904–918. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21817
Forenza, B. (2018). Awareness, analysis, engagement: Critical consciousness through foster youth advisory board participation. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 35(2), 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-017-0515-3
Frewen, P., Wong, S., Bailey, T., Courtois, C., & Lanius, R. (2023). As simple as possible, but not simpler: Revisiting the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ) complex PTSD items omitted in the shortened version. Child Abuse & Neglect, 141, 106207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106207
Grasso, D. J., Doyle, C., & Koon, R. (2019). Two rapid screens for detecting probable post-traumatic stress disorder and interpersonal violence exposure: Predictive utility in a juvenile justice sample. Child Maltreatment, 24, 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559518808584
Grasso, D. J., Felton, J. W., & Reid-Quiñones, K. (2015). The Structured Trauma-Related Experiences and Symptoms Screener (STRESS): Development and preliminary psychometrics. Child Maltreatment, 20(3), 214–220. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559515588131
Grisso, T., & Barnum, R. (2003). Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument Version 2: User’s manual and technical report. Professional Resource Press.
Grisso, T., & Vincent, G. (2012). Trauma in dual status youth: Putting things in perspective. RFK National Resource Center for Juvenile Justice.
Heilbrun, K., Goldstein, N., DeMatteo, D., Newsham, R., Gale-Bentz, E., Cole, L., & Arnold, S. (2017). The Sequential Intercept Model and juvenile justice: Review and prospectus. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 35(4), 319–336.
Herz, D. C., Dierkhising, C. B., Raithel, J., Schretzman, M., Guiltinan, S., Goerge, R. M., Cho, Y., Coulton, C., & Abbott, S. (2019). Dual system youth and their pathways: A comparison of incidence, characteristics and system experiences using linked administrative data. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48, 2432–2450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01090-3
Hoffman, L., & Stawski, R. S. (2009). Persons as contexts: Evaluating between-person and within-person effects in longitudinal analysis. Research in Human Development, 6(2–3), 97–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427600902911189
Holloway, E. D., Cruise, K. R., Morin, S. L., Kaufman, H., & Steele, R. D. (2018). Juvenile probation officers’ evaluation of traumatic event exposures and traumatic stress symptoms as responsivity factors in risk assessment and case planning. Law and Human Behavior, 42, 369–384. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000283
Hunt, J., & Moodie-Mills, A. (2012). Unfair criminalization of gay and transgender youth: An overview of the experiences of LGBT youth in the juvenile justice system. US Department of Justice.
Javdani, S., Berezin, M. N., & April, K. (2023). A treatment-to-prison-pipeline? Scoping review and multimethod examination of legal consequences of residential treatment among adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2178003
Kemp, K. A., & Sheerin, K. M. (2022). Addressing ACES in early childhood to mitigate future police contact. Pediatrics, 150(4), e2022057568. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2022-057568
Kerig, P. K. (2013). Trauma-informed assessment and intervention. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Patricia-Kerig/publication/304498250_Trauma-Informed_Assessment_and_Intervention/links/57718b0408ae10de639deb03/Trauma-Informed-Assessment-and-Intervention.pdf
Kerig, P. K. (2019). Enhancing resilience among providers of trauma-informed care: A curriculum for protection against secondary traumatic stress among non-mental health professionals. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 28(5), 613–630. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2018.1468373
Kerig, P. K., & Becker, S. P. (2010). From internalizing to externalizing: Theoretical models of the process linking PTSD to juvenile delinquency. In S. J. Egan (Ed.), Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Causes, symptoms and treatment (pp. 33–78). Nova Science Publishers.
Kerig, P. K., & Ford, J. D. (2023). Assessing exposure to psychological trauma and posttraumatic stress symptoms in the juvenile justice population. National Child Traumatic Stress Network Juvenile Justice Working Group. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372245475_Assessing_exposure_to_psychological_trauma_and_posttraumatic_stress_symptoms_in_the_juvenile_justice_population
Kerig, P. K., & Mendez, L. (2022). The role of trauma in the developmental trajectories of gang-involved youth. In Psychology of Gang Involvement (First, pp. 51–69). Routledge.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Milanak, M. E., Miller, M. W., Keyes, K. M., & Friedman, M. J. (2013). National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(5), 537–547. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21848
Lang, J. M., & Connell, C. M. (2017). Development and validation of a brief trauma screening measure for children: The Child Trauma Screen. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9, 390–398. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000235
Lemos, I., & Faísca, L. (2015). Psychosocial adversity, delinquent pathway and internalizing psychopathology in juvenile male offenders. Special Issue on New Challenges in Psychology and Law, 42–43, 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2015.08.007
Marrow, M. T., Knudsen, K. J., Olafson, E., & Bucher, S. E. (2012). The value of implementing TARGET within a trauma-informed juvenile justice setting. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 5(3), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2012.697105
Maschi, T., Hatcher, S. S., Schwalbe, C. S., & Rosato, N. S. (2008). Mapping the social service pathways of youth to and through the juvenile justice system: A comprehensive review. Children and Youth Services Review, 30(12), 1376–1385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.04.006
Mendez, L., Mozley, M. M., & Kerig, P. K. (2022). Beyond trauma exposure: Discrimination and posttraumatic stress, internalizing, and externalizing problems among detained youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(3–4), 1825–1851. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520926314
Modrowski, C. A., Bennett, D. C., Chaplo, S. D., & Kerig, P. K. (2017). Screening for PTSD among detained adolescents: Implications of the changes in the DSM-5. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(1), 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000156
Modrowski, C. A., & Kerig, P. K. (2019). Investigating the association between posttraumatic risky behavior and offending in adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48, 1952–1966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01120-0
Modrowski, C. A., Rizzo, C. J., Collibee, C., Houck, C. D., & Schneider, K. (2021). Victimization profiles in girls involved in the juvenile justice system: A latent class analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect Neglect, 111, 104774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104774
Moullin, J. C., Dickson, K. S., Stadnick, N. A., Rabin, B., & Aarons, G. A. (2019). Systematic review of the Exploration, Preparation, Implementation, Sustainment (EPIS) framework. Implementation Science, 14(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-018-0842-6
Nadal, K. L. (2011). The Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS): Construction, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(4), 470–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025193
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2019). The promise of adolescence: Realizing opportunity for all youth. https://doi.org/10.17226/25388
Nelson, R. J., & Vincent, G. M. (2018). Matching services to criminogenic needs following comprehensive risk assessment implementation in juvenile probation. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 45(8), 1136–1153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854818780923
Ovenstad, K. S., Ormhaug, S. M., Shirk, S. R., & Jensen, T. K. (2020). Therapists’ behaviors and youths’ therapeutic alliance during trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 88, 350–361. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000465
Resolution Regarding Trauma-informed Juvenile and Family Courts. (2015). National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges. https://www.ncjfcj.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/regarding-trauma-informed-juvenile-and-family-courts.pdf
RFK National Resource Center for Juvenile Justice. (n.d.). Essential elements of a trauma-informed juvenile justice system (Season 1, Episode 4). Retrieved March 1, 2023, from https://rfknrcjj.org/podcast/s1-ep4-essential-elements-of-a-trauma-informed-juvenile-justice-system/
Sheppard, K. G., Wilson, M. M., Reddick, L. H., Tucker, G. O., & Schwab, A. H. (2022). Reducing staff burnout and turnover intentions in juvenile justice residential commitment programs: The promise of trauma-informed care. Journal of Criminal Justice, 82, 101979. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2022.101979
Shields, J. J., Delany, P. J., & Smith, K. E. (2015). Factors related to the delivery of trauma services in outpatient treatment programs. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 15(1), 114–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/1533256X.2014.996230
Skar, A.-M.S., Ormhaug, S. M., & Jensen, T. K. (2019). Reported levels of upset in youth after routine trauma screening at mental health clinics. JAMA Network Open, 2(5), e194003–e194003. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.4003
Smith-Hatcher, S., Bride, B. E., Oh, H., Moultrie King, D., & Franklin Catrett, J. (2011). An assessment of secondary traumatic stress in juvenile justice education workers. Journal of Correctional Health Care : The Official Journal of the National Commission on Correctional Health Care, 17(3), 208–217. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078345811401509
Snapp, S. D., Hoenig, J. M., Fields, A., & Russell, S. T. (2015). Messy, butch, and queer: LGBTQ youth and the school-to-prison pipeline. Journal of Adolescent Research, 30(1), 57–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558414557625
Spinney, E., Yeide, M., Feyerherm, W., Cohen, M., Stephenson, R., & Thomas, C. (2016). Racial disparities in referrals to mental health and substance abuse services from the juvenile justice system: A review of the literature. Journal of Crime and Justice, 39(1), 153–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2015.1133492
Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Decker, K. B., & Pynoos, R. S. (2004). The University of California at Los Angeles Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index. Current Psychiatry Reports, 6(2), 96–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-004-0048-2
Trauma-Informed Organizational Assessment (TIOA) information packet. (2020). National Child Traumatic Stress Network. https://www.nctsn.org/resources/trauma-informed-organizational-assessment-information-packet
Vereecken, C. A., & Maes, L. (2006). Comparison of a computer-administered and paper-and-pencil-administered questionnaire on health and lifestyle behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38(4), 426–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.10.010
Vidal, S., Connell, C. M., Prince, D. M., & Tebes, J. K. (2019). Multisystem-involved youth: A developmental framework and implications for research, policy, and practice. Adolescent Research Review, 4(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-018-0088-1
Weinberger, E. C., Cruise, K. R., Auguste, E. E., & Samuels, J. K. (2022). The Structured Trauma-Related Experiences and Symptoms Screener (STRESS): Assessing factor structure and clinical utility in a juvenile justice sample. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, No Pagination Specified-No Pagination Specified. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001310
Williams, M., Metzger, I., Leins, C., & DeLapp, C. (2018). Assessing racial trauma within a DSM–5 framework: The UConn Racial/Ethnic Stress & Trauma Survey. Practice Innovations, 3(4), 242–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/pri0000076
Yoder, J., Quinn, C. R., Bosetti, R., & Martinez, C. (2022). Towards achieving racial equity in juvenile justice: Reexamining conventional trauma instruments. Race and Social Problems. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-022-09380-5
Zane, S. N., & Pupo, J. A. (2021). Disproportionate minority contact in the juvenile justice system: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly, 38(7), 1293–1318. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2021.1915364
Zelechoski, A. D. (2016). Trauma, adverse experience, and offending. In APA handbook of psychology and juvenile justice. (pp. 325–342). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14643-015
Funding
This manuscript was funded by grant numbers: K01HD097218 and T32MH078788.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Modrowski, C.A., Sheerin, K., Grant, M. et al. Applying the Exploration, Preparation, Implementation, and Sustainment Framework to Trauma-Focused Screening in the Juvenile Legal System: Considerations and Recommendations for Future Research. Psychol. Inj. and Law (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-023-09482-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-023-09482-4