Abstract
There has been an increase in receipt of academic accommodations and growing disparities in who receives them. In the present study, we examine how decisions about diagnosis, impairment, and disability are made in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and learning disorder. Using the concept of medicalization, we present evidence that psychologists making diagnoses and disability determinations often over-pathologize everyday behaviors and experiences. We focus on the base rates of current and retrospective symptom reports, inaccuracies in self-reported impairment, misinterpretation of cognitive and psychoeducational test results, and the necessity of validity testing. Guided by ethical and professional codes for psychologists, we discuss the harm of over-pathologizing normal behavior for both individuals and for society.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
See Johnson and Suhr (2021) for a detailed methodology
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Retrieved from: https://www.apa.org/ethics/code/ethics-code-2017.pdf
Americans with Disabilities Act. (2008). Amendments Act of 2008, 42 U.S.C. § 1201 et seq. http://www.ada.gov/pubs/adastatute08.pdf
Association on Higher Education and Disability. (2012). Supporting accommodation requests: Guidance on documentation practices. Retrieved from: http://ahead.org/resources/documentation-guidance
Axelrod, J. (2021). Non-burdensome process: An argument in support of reframing what constitutes necessary disability documentation. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 26, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.18666/LDMJ-2021-V26-I2-11112
Axelrod, J., Borst, R., Crawford, A., Hall, E., Meeks, L. M., Meyer, A., & Sullivan, L. (2019). Documenting disability professional and student interactions. AHEAD. Retrieved from: https://higherlogicdownload.s3.amazonaws.com/AHEAD/38b602f4-ec53-451c-9be0-5c0bf5d27c0a/UploadedImages/Documents/2019_AHEAD_White_Paper_FINAL.pdf
Banerjee, M., Lalor, A. R., Madaus, J. W., & Brinckerhoff, L. C. (2020). A survey of postsecondary disability service websites post-ADAAA. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 3, 301–310.
Barkley, R. A. (2011). Barkley functional impairment scale. Guilford Press.
Belkin, D. (2018). Colleges bend the rules for more students: Give them extra help. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from: http://www.wsj.com/articles/colleges-bend-the-rules-for-more-students-give-them-extra-help-1527154200
Belkin, D., Levitz, J., & Korn, M. (2019). Many more students, especially the affluent, get extra time to take the SAT. Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/many-more-studentsespecially-the-affluent-get-extra-time-to-take-the-sat-11558450347
Bikic, A., Reichow, B., McCauley, S. A., Ibrahim, K., & Sukhodolsky, D. G. (2017). Meta-analysis of organizational skills interventions for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 52, 108–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.12.004
Binder, L. M., Iverson, G. L., & Brooks, B. L. (2009). To err is human: “Abnormal” neuropsychological scores and variability are common in healthy adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24, 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acn001
Braaten, E., & Willoughby, B. (2014). Bright kids who can’t keep up. Guilford.
Brooks, B. L., Holdnack, J. A., & Iverson, G. L. (2011). Advanced clinical interpretation of the WAIS-IV and WMS-IV: Prevalence of low scores varies by level of intelligence and years of education. Assessment, 18, 156–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191110385316
Bryant, A. M., Lee, E., Howell, A., Morgan, B., Cook, C. M., & Patel, K., … & Suhr, J. A. (2018). The vulnerability of self-reported disability measures to malingering: A simulated ADHD study. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32, 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1346145
Cahalan, C., Mandinach, E., & Camara, W. (2002). Predictive validity of SAT I: Reasoning test for test-takers with learning disabilities and extended time accommodations. New York, NY; College Entrance Examination Board.
Cahan, S., Nirel, R., & Alkoby, M. (2016). The extra-examination time granting policy: A reconceptualization. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 34, 461–472. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282915616537
Canadian Psychological Association. (2017). Canadian code of ethics for psychologists. Retrieved from: https://cpa.ca/docs/File/Ethics/CPA_Code_2017_4thEd.pdf
Capriotti, M. R., & Pfiffner, L. J. (2019). Patterns and predictors of service utilization among youth with ADHD-predominantly inattentive presentation. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23, 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054716677817
Cohen, T.A., Ray, S.D., Audette, C., & Weiss, R. (2020). College students’ access to academic accommodations varies as a function of school type, selectivity, and cost. Journal of Education and Culture Studies. Retrieved from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/173b/e47882e5ab47ca694a829b70556b7a1cbf50.pdf
Conrad, P., & Potter, D. (2000). From hyperactive children to ADHD adults: Observations on the expansion of medical categories. Social Problems, 47, 559–582. https://doi.org/10.2307/3097135
Cressman, M. N., & Liljequist, L. (2014). The effect of grade norms in college students: Using the Woodcock–Johnson III tests of achievement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47, 271–278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219412461052
Deloitte, L. L. P., & Affiliated Entities. (2017). Enabling sustained student success: Support for students at risk in Ontario’s colleges. Retrieved from: http://www.collegesontario.org/policy-positions/position-papers/Colleges%20Ontario%20_At%20Risk%20Student%20Report_2017_vfinal.pdf
Dhuey, E., Figlio, D., Karbownik, K., & Roth, J. (2019). School starting age and cognitive development. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 38, 538–578. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22135
DuPaul, G. J., Reid, R., Anastopous, A. D., & Power, T. J. (2014). Assessing ADHD symptomatic behaviors and functional impairment in school settings: Impact of student and teacher characteristics. School Psychology Quarterly, 29, 409–421. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/spq0000095
Evans, S. W., Langberg, J. M., Egan, T., & Molitor, S. J. (2014). Middle school-based and high school-based interventions for adolescents with ADHD. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23, 699–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.004
Frances, A. (2014). Saving normal: An insiders’ revolt against out-of-control psychiatric diagnosis, DSM-5, big pharma, and the medicalization of ordinary life. William Morrow.
Fuermaier, A. B. M., Tucha, O., Koerts, J., Butzbach, M., Weisbrod, M., Aschenbrenner, S., & Tucha, I. (2018). Susceptibility of functional impairment scales to noncredible responses in the clinical evaluation of adult ADHD. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32, 671–680. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1406143
Gathje, R. A., Lewandowski, L. J., & Gordon, M. (2008). The role of impairment in the diagnosis of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11, 529–537. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054707314028
Giovingo, L. K., Proctor, B. E., & Prevatt, F. (2005). Use of grade-based norms versus age-based norms in psychoeducational assessment for a college population. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 79–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194050380010601
Goldstein, D., & Patel, J. K. (2019). Need extra time on tests? It helps to have cash. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/30/us/extra-time-504-sat-act.html
Gordon, M., Antshel, K., Faraone, S., Barkely, R., Lewandowski, L., Hudziak, J. J., & Cunningham, C. (2006). Symptoms versus impairment: The case for respecting DSM-IV’s Criterion D. Journal of Attention Disorders, 9, 465–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054705283881
Harrison, A. G., & Holmes, A. (2012). Easier said than done: Operationalizing the diagnosis of learning disability for use at the postsecondary level in Canada. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 27, 12–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573512437021
Harrison, A. G., Lovett, B. J., & Gordon, M. (2013). Documenting disabilities in postsecondary settings: Diagnosticians’ understanding of legal regulations and diagnostic standards. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 28, 303–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573513508527
Harrison, J. R., Soares, D. A., Rudzinski, S., & Johnson, R. (2019a). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders and classroom-based interventions: Evidence-based status, effectiveness, and moderators of effects in single-case design research. Review of Education Research, 89, 569–611. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319857038
Harrison, A. G., Butt, K., & Armstrong, I. (2019b). Comparing age- and grade-based norms on the Woodcock-Johnson III normative update. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 79, 855–873. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164419834607
Harrison, J. R., Evans, S. W., Baran, A., Khondker, F., Press, K., Noel, D., Wasserman, S., Belmonte, C., & Mohlmann, M. (2020). Comparison of accommodations and interventions for youth with ADHD. Journal of School Psychology, 80, 15–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.05.001
Harrison, A. G., Lee, G. L., & Suhr, J. A. (2021a). Use of performance validity tests and symptom validity tests in assessment of specific learning disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In K. B. Boone (Ed.), Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective (2nd ed). Guilford.
Harrison, A. G., Lovett, B. J., Keiser, S., & Armstrong, I. T. (2021b). Learning disability documentation submitted by osteopathic medical students. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 28, 245–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019.1627358
Henry, G. K., Heilbronner, R. L., Suhr, J., Gornbein, J., Wagner, E., & Drane, D. L. (2018). Illness perceptions predict cognitive performance validity. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24, 735–745. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617718000218
Hoelzle, J. B., Ritchie, K. A., Marshall, P. S., Vogt, E., & Marra, D. E. (2019). Erroneous conclusions: The impact of failing to identify invalid symptom presentation when conducting adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) research. Psychological Assessment, 31, 1174. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pas0000752
Horwitz, A., & Wakefield, J. (2007). The loss of sadness: How psychiatry transformed normal sorrow into depressive disorder. Oxford University Press.
Hosterman, J., Balasa, D., Case, H., Gonthiere, I., Greenberg, M., Incrocci, M., & Julian E.,…& Suhr, J. (2019). Testing accommodations: The perils of the “approve anything” model. Journal of the National College Testing Association, 3, 1–16.
Hou, R., Moss-Morris, R., Peverler, R., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Belli, A. (2012). When a minor head injury results in enduring symptoms: A prospective investigation of risk factors for postconcussional syndrome after mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 83, 217–223.
Illich, I. (1975). The medicalization of life. Journal of Medical Ethics, 1, 73–77. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.1.2.73
Jansen, D., Petry, K., Ceulemans, E., van der Oord, S., Noens, I., & Baeyens, D. (2017). Functioning and participation problems of students with ADHD in higher education: Which reasonable accommodations are effective? European Journal of Special Needs Education, 32, 35–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2016.1254965
Jargon, J. (2021). Tiktok diagnosis videos leave some teens thinking they have rare mental disorders. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/tiktok-diagnosis-videos-leave-some-teens-thinking-they-have-rare-mental-disorders-11640514602
Jeffay, E., Binder, L. M., & Zakzanis, K. K. (2021). Marked intraindividual cognitive variability in a sample of healthy graduate students. Psychological Injury and Law, 14, 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-021-09417-x
Johnson, E. E. H., & Suhr, J. (2021). Self-reported functional impairment in college students: Relationship to noncredible reporting, ADHD, psychological disorders, and other psychological factors. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 43, 399–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2021.1935490
Joy, J. A., Julius, R. J., Akter, R., & Baron, D. A. (2010). Assessment of ADHD documentation from candidates requesting Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) accommodations for the national board of osteopathic medical examiners COMLEX exam. Journal of Attention Disorders, 14(2), 104–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054710365056
Julian, E. (2005). Validity of the Medical College Admission Test for predicting medical school performance. Academic Medicine, 80, 910–917.
Lauth, L., Sweeney, A., & Reese, L. (2017). Accommodated test-taker trends and performance for the June 2012 through February 2017 LSAT administrations. Retrieved from: https://www.lsac.org/data-research/research/accommodated-test-taker-trends-and-performance-june2012-through-february
Layton, T., Barnett, M., Hicks, T., & Jena, A. (2018). Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and month of school enrollment. New England Journal of Medicine, 379, 2122–2130. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1806828
Leventhal, H., Meyer, D., & Nerenz, D. (1980). The common sense model of illness danger. In S. Rachman (Ed.), Medical psychology (Vol 2). Pergamon.
Lewandowski, L. L., Lovett, B. J., Coding, R. S., & Gordon, M. (2008). Symptoms of ADHD and academic concerns in college students with and without ADHD diagnoses. Journal of Attention Disorders, 12, 156–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054707310882
Lewandowski, L., Cohen, J., & Lovett, B. J. (2013). Effects of extended time allotments on reading comprehension performance of college students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 31, 326–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282912462693
Lovett, B. J. (2010). Extended time testing accommodations for students with disabilities: Answers to five fundamental questions. Review of Educational Research, 80, 611–638. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654310364063
Lovett, B.J. (2021). Educational accommodations for students with disabilities: Two equity-related concerns. Frontiers in Education. Retrieved from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2021.795266/full
Lovett, B. J., & Bizub, A. L. (2019). Pinpointing disability accommodation needs: What evidence is most relevant? Psychological Injury and Law, 12, 42–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-019-09341-1
Lovett, B. J., & Nelson, J. M. (2021). Systematic review: Educational accommodations for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 60, 448–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.07.891
Maddocks, D. L. (2018). The identification of students who are gifted and have a learning disability: A comparison of different diagnostic criteria. Gifted Child Quarterly, 55, 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986217752096
Mah, K., Hickling, A., & Reed, N. (2018). Perceptions of mild traumatic brain injury in adults: A scoping review. Disability and Rehabilitation: An International, Multidisciplinary Journal, 40, 960–973. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2016.1277402
Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., Klein, D. F., Bessler, A., & Shrout, P. (2002). Accuracy of adult recall of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1882–1888. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.11.1882
Mather, N., & Jaffe, L. E. (Eds.) (2010). Comprehensive evaluations. Wiley.
McCrea, S. M. (2008). Self-handicapping, excuse making, and counterfactual thinking: Consequences for self-esteem and future motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 274–292. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.2.274
McGregor, K. K., Langenfeld, N., Van Horne, S., Oleson, J., Anson, M., & Jacobson, W. (2016). The university experiences of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 31, 90–102. https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12102
Metzl, J. M., & Herzig, R. M. (2007). Medicalisation in the 21st century: Introduction. The Lancet, 9562(369), 697–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60317-1
Meyer, A., Thornton, M., & Funckes, C. (2020). The professional’s guide to exploring and facilitating access. Huntersville, NC: AHEAD.
Morrow, R. L., Garland, E. J., Wright, J. M., Maclure, M., Taylor, S., & Dormuth, C. R. (2012). Influence of relative age on diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 184, 755–762. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.111619
Moynihan, R., & Cassels, A. (2005). Selling sickness: How the world’s biggest pharmaceutical companies are turning us all into patients. Nation Books.
Murphy, P., & Schachar, R. (2000). Use of self-ratings in the assessment of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1156–1159. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.7.1156
Murray, D. W., Molina, B. S. G., Glew, K., Houck, P., Greiner, A., Fong, D., Swanson, J.,…& Jensen, P.S. (2014). Prevalence and characteristics of school services for high school students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Mental Health: A Multidisciplinary Research and Practice Journal, 6, 264–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-014-9128-6
Nelson, J. M., & Lovett, B. J. (2019). Assessing ADHD in college students: Integrating multiple evidence sources with symptom and performance validity data. Psychological Assessment, 31, 793–804. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000702
Nelson, J. M., Whipple, B., Lindstrom, W., & Foels, P. A. (2019). How is ADHD assessed and documented? Examination of psychological reports submitted to determine eligibility for postsecondary disability. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23, 1780–1791. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714561860
Pardy, B. (2016). Head starts and extra time: Academic accommodation on post-secondary exams and assignments for students with cognitive and mental disabilities. Education Law Journal, 25, 191. Retrieved from: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2828420
Rado, D. (2012). Many Illinois high school students get special testing accommodations for ACT. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from: https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-met-testing-accommodations20120429-58-story.html
Raue, K., & Lewis, L. (2011). Students with disabilities at degree-granting postsecondary institutions (NCES 2011–018). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. U.S. Government Printing Office. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011018.pdf
Ready, R. E., Chaudhry, M. F., Schatz, K. C., & Strazzullo, S. (2012). ‘‘Passageless’’ administration of the Nelson-Denny Reading Comprehension Test: Associations with IQ and reading skills. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46, 377–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219412468160
Schoechlin, C., & Engel, R. R. (2005). Neuropsychological performance in adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Meta-analysis of empirical data. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(6), 727–744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2005.04.005
Searcy, C., Dowd, K., Hughes, M., Baldwin, S., & Pigg, T. (2015). Association of MCAT scores obtained with standard vs extra administration time with medical school admission, medical student performance, and time to graduation. Journal of the American Medical Association, 313, 2253–2262. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.5511
Shapiro, A . (2020). Over diagnosed or over looked? The effect of age at time of school entry on students receiving special education services. (EdWorkingPaper: 20–259). Retrieved from Annenberg Institute at Brown University: https://doi.org/10.26300/5ccm-xh14
Sherman, E. M. S., Slick, D. J., & Iverson, G. L. (2020). Multidimensional malingering criteria for neuropsychological assessment: A 20-year update of the malingered neuropsychological dysfunction criteria. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 28, 735–764. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acaa019
Sireci, S. G., Scarpati, S. E., & Li, S. (2005). Test accommodations for students with disabilities: An analysis of the interaction hypothesis. Review of Educational Research, 75, 457–490. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075004457
Slay, B. (2021). Why “TikTik diagnoses” are on the rise. Psychology today. Retrieved from: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-culture/202108/why-tiktok-diagnoses-are-the-rise
Smith, L. (2019). Affidavit in support of criminal complaint. https://www.justice.gov/file/1142876/download
Snell, D. L., Hay-Smith, E. J. C., Surgenor, L. J., & Siegert, R. J. (2013). Examination of outcome after mild traumatic brain injury: The contribution of injury beliefs and Leventhal’s common sense model. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 23(3), 333–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2012.758419
Sollman, M. J., Ranseen, J. D., & Berry, D. T. (2010). Detection of feigned ADHD in college students. Psychological Assessment, 29, 1447–1457.
Spiel, C. F., Evans, S. W., & Langberg, J. M. (2014). Evaluating the content of individualized education programs and 504 plans of young adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Quarterly, 29, 452–468. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/spq0000101
Suhr, J. A. (2015). Psychological assessment: A problem-solving approach. Guilford.
Suhr, J.A., & Wei, C. (2013a). Response expectancies and their potential influence in neuropsychological evaluation. In P. Arnett (Ed.), Secondary influences on neuropsychological test performance. Oxford University Press.
Suhr, J., & Wei, C. (2013b). Symptoms as an excuse: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom reporting as an excuse for cognitive test performance in the context of evaluative threat. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32, 753–769. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2013.32.7.753
Suhr, J., & Wei, C. (2017). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder as an illness identity: Implications for neuropsychological practice. In K.B. Boone (Ed.), Neuropsychological evaluation of somatoform and other functional somatic conditions: Assessment primer. Routledge.
Suhr, J. A., Lee, G. J., & Angers, K. (2021). Validity assessment in academic evaluations. In R. W. Schroeder & P.K. Martin (Eds.), Validity assessment in clinical neuropsychological practice. Guilford.
Suhr, J., Zimak, E., Buelow, M., & Fox, L. (2009). Self-reported childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms are not specific to the disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 50(3), 269–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2008.08.008
Suhr, J. A., Cook, C., & Morgan, B. (2017). Assessing functional impairment in ADHD: Concerns for validity of self-report. Psychological Injury and Law, 10, 151–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-017-9292-8
Suhr, J. A., Lee, G. L., Harrison, A. H. (2020). Susceptibility of functional impairment ratings to noncredible reporting in postsecondary students undergoing screening for ADHD. The Clinical Neuropsychologist. 1–13 https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2020.1817564
Sweet, J. J., Heilbronner, R. L., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G. J., Rohling, M. L., Boone, K. B., Kirkwood, M. W., Schroeder, R. W., & Suhr, J. A. (2021). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) 2021 consensus statement on validity assessment: Update of the 2009 AACN consensus conference statement on neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 1053–1106. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1896036
U. S. Government Accountability Office. (2011). Higher education and disability (GAO-12–40). Retrieved from: https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-12-40
U.S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics. (2019). Digest of education statistics, 2017 (2018–070). Retrieved from: https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=60
Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists. (2008). Accessed from: https://www.ucc.ie/en/media/academic/appliedpsychology/ethicsforms/universal_declaration_of_ethics.pdf
Van Voorhees, E. E., Hardy, K. K., & Kollins, S. H. (2011). Reliability and validity of self-and other-ratings of symptoms of ADHD in adults. Journal of Attention Disorders, 15(3), 224–234. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054709356163
Var, F. H., & Rajeswaran, J. (2012). Perception of illness in patients with traumatic brain injury. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 34, 223–226.
War, F. A., & Rajeswaren, J. (2013). Quality of life and perception of illness in patients with traumatic brain injury. The Indian Journal of Neurotrauma, 10, 115–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnt.2013.12.004
Weis, R. & Bittner, S. A. (2021). College students’ access to academic accommodations over time: Evidence of a Matthew effect in higher education. Psychological Injury and Law, 1–17 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-021-09429-7
Weis, R., Hombosky, M. L., Schafeer, K. K., Shulman, D., & Tull, J. K. (2021). Accommodation decision-making for postsecondary students with ADHD: Implications for neuropsychologists. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 43, 370–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2021.1918645
Weis, R., Till, C. H., & Erickson, C. P. (2019). ADHD assessment in college students: Psychologists’ adherence to “DSM-5” criteria and multi-method/ multi-informant assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 37, 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282917735152
Whittaker, R., Kemp, S., & House, A. (2007). Illness perceptions in mild head injury. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 78, 644–646. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2006.101105
Wightman, L. (1993). Predictive validity of the LSAT: A national summary of the 1990–1992 correlation studies (Research Report Number 93–05). Newtown, PA: Law School Admission Council.
Winter, D., & Braw, Y. (2022). COVID-19: Impact of diagnosis threat and suggestibility of subjective cognitive complaints. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 22, 1697–2600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2021.100253
Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler adult intelligence scale–fourth edition. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
Wechsler, D. (2009). Wechsler memory scale–fourth edition. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001a). Woodcock-Johnson III-Tests of Achievement. Itasca, IL: Riverside.
Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001b). Woodcock-Johnson III-Tests of cognitive abilities. Itasca, IL: Riverside.
Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., Schrank, F. A., & Mather, N. (2007). Woodcock-Johnson– III normative update. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside.
World Health Organization. (2012). Measuring health and disability: Manual for WHO disability assessment schedule (WHODAS 2.0). Geneva: World Health Organization, 2010
Yellin, D. (2017). Growing number of students seeking accommodations for SAT. Retrieved from: http://www.northjersey.com/story/news/education/2017/01/26/record-numbers-students-seeking-accommodations/96162464
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
No animal studies were carried out by the authors for this article.
Consent to Participate
Data presented in the article were from a deidentified dataset of a previously published study that had been approved by the ethics board of Ohio University. All procedures in the previously published study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (national and institutional).
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Suhr, J.A., Johnson, E.E.H. First Do No Harm: Ethical Issues in Pathologizing Normal Variations in Behavior and Functioning. Psychol. Inj. and Law 15, 253–267 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-022-09455-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-022-09455-z