Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) via their impact on sensory processing (SP), which previous simple correlational analysis suggests is affected in both. We examined adults from the general population without clinical diagnoses, using a broad-based self-report survey methodology, looking at the symptoms of ADHD and ASD, SP and a range of other issues (anxiety, reward sensitivity and schizotypy) which are reliant on sensory processing. Their relationship was explored using Exploratory Graph Analysis, a method which assesses whether survey responses cluster into 'communities'. We found three communities, reflecting typical inter and intrapersonal ADHD/ASD problems. Although ADHD/ASD did not form a community with sensory processing, the model suggested ADHD/ASD are connected to sensory processing through intermediary conditions, such as panic anxiety. The model suggested that disorganised thought, speech and behaviour, and challenges in social interaction, use anxiety as a bridge with sensory processing, through aberrant attentional deployment and biases in cognitive processes, which can induce anxious states and therefore manifest in behaviour typical of ADHD/ASD. Previous simple correlational analyses overestimate the direct relationship between ADHD/ASD and sensory processing changes.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Code and data can be found in the link below:
Repository—Google Drive
For reproducing, permission needs to be asked by the corresponding author.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi-org.ezproxy.frederick.edu/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Angulo, M., Rooks, B. T., Gill, M., Goldstein, T., Sakolsky, D., Goldstein, B., Monk, K., Hickey, M. B., Diler, R. S., Hafeman, D., Merranko, J., Axelson, D., & Birmaher, B. (2017). Psychometrics of the screen for adult anxiety related disorders (SCAARED)- A new scale for the assessment of DSM-5 anxiety disorders. Psychiatry Research, 253, 84–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.02.034
Ben-Sasson, A., Carter, A. S., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2009). Sensory over-responsivity in elementary school: Prevalence and social-emotional correlates. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(5), 705–716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9295-8
Bigelow, R. T., & Agrawal, Y. (2015). Vestibular involvement in cognition: Visuospatial ability, attention, executive function, and memory. Journal of Vestibular Research, 25(2), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.3233/VES-150544
Billstedt, E., Gillberg, C (2007) Autism in adults: symptom patterns and early childhood predictors. Use of the DISCO in a community sample followed from childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(11):1102–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01774.x.
Bottema-Beutel, K. (2017). Glimpses into the blind spot: Social interaction and autism. Journal of Communication Disorders, 68, 24–34. ISSN 0021–9924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2017.06.008.
Burt, R. S., Kilduff, M., & Tasselli, S. (2013). Social network analysis: Foundations and frontiers on advantage. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 527–547. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143828
Butera, C., Ring, P., Sideris, J., Jayashankar, A., Kilroy, E., Harrison, L., Cermak, S., & Aziz-Zadeh, L. (2020). Impact of sensory processing on school performance outcomes in high functioning individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Mind, Brain, & Education, 14(3), 243–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12242
Chen, J., & Chen, Z. (2008). Extended Bayesian information criteria for model selection with large model spaces. Biometrika, 95(3), 759–771. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/asn034
Coghill, D., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2012). Annual research review: Categories versus dimensions in the classification and conceptualisation of child and adolescent mental disorders–implications of recent empirical study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(5), 469–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02511.x
Cohen, A. S., Matthews, R. A., Najolia, G. M., & Brown, L. A. (2010). Toward a more psychometrically sound brief measure of schizotypal traits: Introducing the SPQ-Brief Revised. Journal of Personality Disorders, 24(4), 516–537. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2010.24.4.516
Costantini, G., Epskamp, S., Borsboom, D., Perugini, M., Mõttus, R., Waldorp, L. J., & Cramer, A. O. J. (2015). State of the aRt personality research: A tutorial on network analysis of personality data in R. Journal of Research in Personality, 54, 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.07.003.ISSN0092-6566
Cox, D. R., & Wermuth, N. (1994). A note on the quadratic exponential binary distribution. Biometrika, 81(2), 403–408. https://doi.org/10.2307/2336971
Csárdi, G., & Nepusz, T. (2006). The igraph software package for complex network research. InterJournal, Complex Systems, 1695, 1–9.
Dellapiazza, F., Michelon, C., Vernhet, C., Muratori, F., Blanc, N., Picot, M.-C., & Baghdadli, A. (2020). Sensory processing related to attention in children with ASD, ADHD, or typical development: Results from the ELENA cohort. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01516-5
Dunn, W. (1999). Sensory profile. Psychological Corporation.
Dunn, W., & Bennett, D. (2002). Patterns of sensory processing in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, 22(1), 4–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/153944920202200102
Eley, T. C., Gregory, A. M., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2007). Feeling anxious: A twin study of panic/somatic ratings, anxiety sensitivity and heartbeat perception in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(12), 1184–1191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01838.x
Engel-Yeger, B., & Dunn, W. (2011). The relationship between sensory processing difficulties and anxiety level of healthy adults. The British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 74(5), 210–216. https://doi.org/10.4276/030802211X13046730116407
Epskamp, S. (2017). Network psychometrics. Doctoral dissertation, University of Amsterdam.
Epskamp, S., Kruis, J., & Marsman, M. (2017a). Estimating psychopathological networks: Be careful what you wish for. PLoS ONE, 12(6), e0179891. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179891
Epskamp, S., Rhemtulla, M., & Borsboom, D. (2017b). Generalized network psychometrics: Combining network and latent variable models. Psychometrika, 82(4), 904–927. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-017-9557-x
Epskamp, S., Borsboom, D., & Fried, E. I. (2018a). Estimating psychological networks and their accuracy: A tutorial paper. Behav Res, 50, 195–212. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0862-1
Epskamp, S., Waldorp, L. J., Mõttus, R., & Borsboom, D. (2018b). The Gaussian graphical model in cross-sectional and time-series data. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 53(4), 453–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2018.1454823
Golino, H. F., & Demetriou, A. (2017). Estimating the dimensionality of intelligence like data using exploratory graph analysis. Intelligence, 62, 54–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2017.02.007
Golino, H. F., & Epskamp, S. (2017). Exploratory graph analysis: A new approach for estimating the number of dimensions in psychological research. PLoS ONE, 12(6), e0174035. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174035
Golino, H., Shi, D., Christensen, A. P., Garrido, L. E., Nieto, M. D., Sadana, R., Thiyagarajan, J. A., & Martinez-Molina, A. (2020). Investigating the performance of exploratory graph analysis and traditional techniques to identify the number of latent factors: A simulation and tutorial. Psychological Methods, 25(3), 292–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000255
Golino, H., Christensen, A. P. (2021). Estimating the stability of psychological dimensions via Bootstrap Exploratory Graph Analysis: A Monte Carlo simulation and tutorial. https://doi.org/10.3390/psych3030032
Hall, J. (2017). Schizophrenia — an anxiety disorder? British Journal of Psychiatry, 211(5), 262–263. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.116.195370
Hurley, R. S., Losh, M., Parlier, M., Reznick, J. S., & Piven, J. (2007). The broad autism phenotype questionnaire. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1679–1690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0299-3
Kern, J. K., Geier, D. A., Sykes, L. K., Geier, M. R., & Deth, R. C. (2015). Are ASD and ADHD a continuum? A comparison of pathophysiological similarities between the disorders. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19(9), 805–827. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054712459886
Kessler, R. C., Adler, L. A., Ames, M., Demler, O., Faraone, S., Hiripi, E., …, & Walters, E. E. (2005). The world health organization adult ADHD self-report scale (ASRS): A short screening scale for use in the general population. Psychological Medicine, 35, 245–256. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291704002892
Koller, D., & Friedman, N. (2009). Probabilistic graphical models: Principles and techniques. MIT Press.
Lauritzen SL. Graphical models. Clarendon Press; 1996 May 2
Levy, F., Hay, D. A., McStephen, M., Wood, C., & Waldman, I. (1997). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(6), 737–744. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199706000-00009
Mangeot, S. D., Miller, L. J., McIntosh, D. N., McGrath-Clarke, J., Simon, J., Hagerman, R. J., & Goldson, E. (2001). Sensory modulation dysfunction in children with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 43(6), 399–406. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0012162201000743
Murphy, K. P. (2012). Machine learning: A probabilistic perspective. MIT Press.
Pallanti, S., & Salerno, L. (2015). Raising attention to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in schizophrenia. World Journal of Psychiatry, 5(1), 47–55. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v5.i1.47
Panagiotidi, M., Overton, P. G., & Stafford, T. (2017a). Multisensory integration and ADHD-like traits: Evidence for an abnormal temporal integration window in ADHD. Acta Psychologica, 181, 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.10.001
Panagiotidi, M., Overton, P. G., & Stafford, T. (2019). Co-Occurrence of ASD and ADHD Traits in an Adult Population. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(12), 1407–1415. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054717720720
Panagiotidi, M., Overton, P.G., and Stafford, T. (2017b). The relationship between ADHD traits and sensory sensitivity in the general population. Comprehensive Psychiatry, ISSN 0010–440X. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2017.10.008
Potter, C. M., Wong, J., Heimberg, R. G., Blanco, C., Liu, S. M., Wang, S., & Schneier, F. R. (2014). Situational panic attacks in social anxiety disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 167, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.05.044
Robertson, A. E., & Simmons, D. R. (2013). The Relationship between sensory sensitivity and autistic traits in the general population. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(4), 775–784. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1608-7
Rozgonjuk, D., Sindermann, C., Elhai, J. D., Christensen, A. P., & Montag, C. (2020). Associations between symptoms of problematic smartphone, Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram use: An item-level exploratory graph analysis perspective. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 9(3), 686–697. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2020.00036
Schoen, S. A., Miller, L. J., Brett-Green, B. A., & Nielsen, D. M. (2009). Physiological and behavioral differences in sensory processing: A comparison of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Sensory Modulation Disorder. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 3, 29.
Shean, G. (2013). Empirically based psychosocial therapies for schizophrenia: The disconnection between science and practice. Schizophrenia Research and Treatment, 2013, 792769. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/792769
Solomon, M., Ozonoff, S., Carter, C., & Caplan, R. (2008). Formal thought disorder and the autism spectrum: Relationship with symptoms, executive control, and anxiety. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(8), 1474–1484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0526-6
Torrubia, R., Ávila, C., Moltó, J., & Caseras, X. (2001). The sensitivity to punishment and sensitivity to reward questionnaire (SPSRQ) as a measure of Gray’s anxiety and impulsivity dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 31(6), 837–862. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00183-5
Tripp, G., & Alsop, B. (2001). Sensitivity to reward delay in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 42(5), 691–698.
Wiener-Vacher, S. R., Hamilton, D. A., & Wiener, S. I. (2013). Vestibular activity and cognitive development in children: Perspectives. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 7, 92. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2013.00092
Yang, Z., Algesheimer, R., & Tessone, C. (2016). A Comparative analysis of community detection algorithms on artificial networks. Science and Reports, 6, 30750. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep30750
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Informed consent form
ADHD and ASD traits are indirectly associated with sensory changes through anxiety.
Consent Form
Please tick the appropriate boxes | Yes | No |
|---|---|---|
Taking Part in the Project | ||
I have read and understood the project information sheet dated XX/XX/2021 and the project has been fully explained to me. (If you answer No to this question please do not proceed with this consent form until you are fully aware of what your participation in the project will mean.) | ||
I have been given the opportunity to ask questions about the project | ||
I agree to take part in the project. I understand that taking part in the project will involve my completing a series of online questionnaires assessing attentional factors, social communication and aspects of perception | ||
I understand that by choosing to participate as a volunteer in this research, this does not create a legally binding agreement nor is it intended to create an employment relationship with the University of Sheffield | ||
I understand that I can withdraw from the research/study, with or without notice, at any time. I understand that I do not have to give any reasons for why I no longer want to take part and there will be no adverse consequences if I choose to withdraw | ||
How my information will be used during and after the project | ||
I understand my personal details such as name, phone number, address and email address etc. will not be collected during this project | ||
I understand and agree that other authorised researchers will have access to this data only if they agree to preserve the confidentiality of the information as requested in this form | ||
I understand and agree that other authorised researchers may use my data in publications, reports, web pages, and other research outputs, only if they agree to preserve the confidentiality of the information as requested in this form | ||
I give permission for the answers in questionnaires that I provide to be deposited in a file so it can be used for future research and learning | ||
So that the information you provide can be used legally by the researchers | ||
I agree to assign the copyright I hold in any materials generated as part of this project to The University of Sheffield |
Name of participant [printed]SignatureDate
Name of Researcher [printed]SignatureDate
Conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Varbanov, V., Overton, P.G. & Stafford, T. ADHD and ASD traits are indirectly associated with sensory changes through anxiety. Curr Psychol 42, 32355–32367 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04217-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04217-1