Abstract
Brake wear emission is a significant contributor to vehicle-related particulate matter, especially in areas with high traffic density and braking frequency. Only recently, non-exhaust emissions from car brake wear have been regulated under Euro 7 regulation, which introduces emission limits for both brake and tires. It also introduces a standard brake particle assessment procedure which includes sampling procedure and measurement techniques defined in the Global Technical Regulation on brakes from light-duty vehicles up to 3.5 t. Over the years, various experimental setups have been tried leading to non-comparable results. The brake wear particle emissions, expressed as emission factors, are mostly estimated as particle mass or particle number and described using different units (e.g., mg/stop brake, mg/km brake; particle number/cm3) making the comparison between studies very difficult. The aim of the present literature review is to present the state-of-the-art of different experimental methods tuned for assessing brake wear emissions, including electric vehicles. The experiments are carried in close, semi-closed, and open systems, and depending on the experimental design, different sampling methods are applied to reduce particle transport loss and guarantee the efficiency of the particle sampling. Driving condition (e.g., speed and applied pressure), formulation of brake materials, and friction temperature have been found to strongly affect the emission characteristics of brake particles, and this needs to be considered when designing study procedures. The findings reported in this review can be beneficial to policy makers and researchers.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data analyzed during this review are available in the published research papers cited in this review. No additional datasets were generated or analyzed.
References
Alemani M, Nosko O, Metinoz I, Olofsson U (2015) A study on emission of airborne wear particles from car brake friction Pairs. SAE Int J Mater Manf 9:147–157. https://doi.org/10.4271/2015-01-2665
Amaral SS, De Carvalho Jr JA, Martins Costa MA, Pinheiro C (2015) An overview of particulate matter measurement instruments. Atm 6:1327–1345. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos6091327
Amato F, Pandolfi M, Moreno T, Furger M, Pey J, Alastuey A, Bukowiecki N, Prevot ASH, Baltensberger U, Querol X (2011) Sources and variability of inhalable road dust particles in three European cities. Atmos Environ 45:6777–6787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.06.003
Amato F, Cassee FR, van der Gon HACD, Gehrig R, Gustafsson M, Hafner W, Harrison RM, Jozwicka M, Kelly FJ, Moreno T, Prevot ASH, Schaap M, Sunyer J, Querol X (2014) Urban air quality: the challenge of traffic non-exhaust emissions. J Hazard Mat 275:31–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.04.053
André M (2004) The ARTEMIS European driving cycles for measuring car pollutant emissions. Sci Total Environ 334–335:73–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.04.070
Beelen R, Hoek G, van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, Fischer P, Schouten LJ, Jerrett M, Hughes E, Armstrong B, Brunekreef B (2008) Long-term effects of traffic-related air pollution on mortality in a Dutch cohort (NLCS-AIR study). Environ Health Perspect 116:196–202. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.10767
Beji A, Deboudt K, Khardi S, Muresan S, Flament P, Fourmentin M (2020) Non-exhaust particle emissions under various driving conditions: Implications for sustainable mobility. Transp Res D Transp Environ 81:102290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102290
Cai R, Zhang J, Nie X, Matthews DTA (2020) Wear mechanism evolution on brake discs for reduced wear and particulate emissions. Wear 452–453:203283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2020.203283
Chasapidis L, Grigoratos T, Zygogianni A, Tsakis A, Konstandopoulos A (2018) Study of brake wear particle emissions of a minivan on a chassis dynamometer. Emiss Control Sci Technol 4:271–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40825-018-0105-7
Denier Van der Gon H, Gerlofs-Nijland M, Gehrig R, Gustafsson M, Janssen N, Harrison R, Hulskotte J, Johansson C, Jozwicka M, Keuken M, Krijgsheld K, Ntziachristos L, Riediker M, Cassee F (2013) The policy relevance of wear emissions from road transport, now and in the future—an international workshop report and consensus statement. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 63:136–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2012.741055
Divakarla KP (2014) Journey mapping: a new approach for defining automotive drive cycles; McMaster University, Electrical and Computer Engineering: Hamilton, ON, Canada. http://hdl.handle.net/11375/16799. Accessed 22 May 2022
Eastern Research Group, Inc. (2021) Break and tire wear emissions. Final report. Prepared for California Air Resources Group. Available online: https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/2021-04/17RD016.pdf. Accessed 21 October 2022
Economic Commission for Europe, Working Party on Pollution and Energy (2023) GRPE 87–40e Proposal for a new UN GTR on laboratory measurement of brake emissions for light-duty vehicles 2023. 87th GRPE session, Geneva Switzerland, 11–13 January 2023. Available online: https://unece.org/transport/documents/2023/01/informal-documents/clean-pmp-proposal-amend-ecetranswp29grpe20234. Accessed 29 May 2023
European Commission (2022) Commission proposes new Euro 7 standards to reduce pollutant emissions from vehicles and improve air quality. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_6495. Accessed 29 May 2023
Garg BD, Cadle SH, Mulawa PA, Groblicki PJ (2015) Brake wear particulate matter emissions. Environ Sci Technol 34:4463–4469. https://doi.org/10.1021/es001108h
Gasser M, Riediker M, Mueller L, Perrenoud A, Blank F, Gehr P, Rothen-Rutishauser B (2009) Toxic effects of brake wear particles on epithelial lung cells in vitro. Part Fibre Toxicol 6:30. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-6-30
Gilardi R, Alzati L, Thiam M, Brunel JF, Desplanques Y, Dufrénoy P, Sharma S, Bijwa J (2012) Copper substitution and noise reduction in brake pads: graphite type selection. Mater 5:2258–2269. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma5112258
Gramstat S, Cserhati A, Schroeder M, Lugovyy D (2017) Brake Particle Emission Measurements - Testing Method and Results. SAE Int J Eng 10:1841–1846. https://doi.org/10.2307/26422572
Grigoratos T, Martini G (2015) Brake wear particle emissions: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:2491–2504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3696-8
Grigoratos T, Mamakos A, Arndt M, Lugovyy D, Anderson R, Hafenmayer C, Moisio M, Vanhanen J, Frazee R, Agudelo C (2023) Characterization of particle number setups for measuring brake particle emissions and comparison with exhaust setups. Atmosphere 14:103. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14010103
Hagino H, Oyama M, Sasaki S (2016) Laboratory testing of airborne brake wear particle emissions using a dynamometer system under urban city driving cycles. Atmos Environ 131:269–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.02.014
Hamanaka RB, Mutlu GM (2018) Particulate matter air pollution: effects on the cardiovascular system. Front Endocrinol 9:680. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2018.0068
Harrison R, Jones A, Gietl J, Yin J, Green D (2012) Estimation of the contributions of brake dust, tire wear, and resuspension to nonexhaust traffic particles derived from atmospheric measurements. Environ Sci Technol 46:6523–6529. https://doi.org/10.1021/es300894r
Hascoët M, Adamczak L (2020) At source brake dust collection system. Results Eng 5:100083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2019.100083
Hesse D, Klaus A, Toni F, Jochen S (2019) Real driving emissions measurement of brake dust particles. Conference EuroBrake 2019, Dresden, Germany. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334671579
Hesse D, Hamatschek C, Augsburg K, Weigelt T, Prahst A, Gramstat S (2021) Testing of alternative disc brakes and friction materials regarding brake wear particle emissions and temperature behavior. Atmosphere 12:436. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12040436
Iijima A, Sato K, Yano K, Kato M, Kozawa K, Furuta N (2008) Emission factor for antimony in brake abrasion dusts as one of the major atmospheric antimony sources. Environ Sci Technol 42:2937–2942. https://doi.org/10.1021/es702137g
International Organization for Standardization (2009) Road vehicles — Brake lining friction materials — Friction behaviour assessment for automotive brake systems (ISO 26867:2009). Retrieved from: https://www.iso.org/standard/43848.html
Joumard R, André M, Vidon R, Tassel P, Pruvost C (2000) Influence of driving cycles on unit emissions from passenger cars. Atmos Environ 34:4621–4628. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(00)00118-7
Kakad SR, More RM, Kamble DN (2013) Mathematical modeling & analysis of brake pad for wear characteristics. Int Conf Ideas, Impact Innov Mechan Eng 5:1048–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.04.040
Kašparová M, Zahálka F, Houdková Š (2009) Evaluation of material friction properties using the “block-on-ring” apparatus. In: Hosson JTM, Brebbia CA (eds) Surface effects and contact mechanics IX, vol 62, pp 115–124. https://doi.org/10.2495/SECM090111
Kim SH, Jeong MH, Kim J, Shim W, Kwon SU, Lee JJ, Huh SH, Pee JH, Kim JY (2021) Dynamometric investigation on airborne particulate matter (PM) from friction materials for automobile: impact of abrasive and lubricant on PM emission factor. Lubricants 9:118. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9120118
Kumar M, Bijwe J (2011) Non-asbestos organic (NAO) friction composites: role of copper; its shape and amount. Wear 270:269–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2010.10.068
Kwak JH, Kim H, Lee J, Lee S (2013) Characterization of non-exhaust coarse and fine particles from on-road driving and laboratory measurements. Sci Total Environ 458–460:273–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.04.040
Lee PW, Lee L, Filip P (2013) Friction performance of eco-friendly Cu-free brake materials with geopolymer matrixes. SAE Int. J Passeng Cars - Mech Syst 6:1389–1397. https://doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-2026
Li D, Leroux P (2016) Block on ring sliding wear evaluation. Technical report. Retrieved from: https://nanovea.com/block-on-ring-sliding-wear-evaluation/. Accessed 29 May 2022
Liu Y, Wu S, Chen H, Federici M, Perricone G, Li Y, Lv G, Munir S, Luo Z, Mao B (2022) Brake wear induced PM10 emissions during the world harmonized light-duty vehicle test procedure-brake cycle. J Clean Prod 361:132278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132278
Luján JM, Bermúdez V, Dolz V, Monsalve-Serrano J (2018) An assessment of the real-world driving gaseous emissions from a Euro 6 light-duty diesel vehicle using a portable emissions measurement system (PEMS). Atmos Environ 174:112–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.11.056
Lyu Y, Leonardi M, Wahlstrom J, Gialanella S, Olofsson U (2020) Friction, wear and airborne particle emission from Cu-free brake materials. Tribol Internat 141:105959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2019.105959
Mamakos A, Arndt M, Hesse D, Augsburg K (2019) Physical characterization of brake wear particles in a 3 PM10 dilution tunnel. Atmos 10:639. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10110639
Matĕjka V, Metinöz I, Wahlström J, Alemano M, Perricone G (2017) On the running-in of brake pads and discs for dyno bench tests. Tribol Internat 115:424–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2017.06.008
Mathissen M, Grigoratos T, Lahde T, Vogt R (2019) Brake wear particle emissions of a passenger car measured on a chassis dynamometer. Atmos 10:556. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10090556
Men Z, Zhang X, Peng J, Zhang J, Fang T, Guo Q, Wei N, Zhang Q, Wang T, Wu L, Mao H (2022) Determing factors and paramerization of brake wear particle emission. J Hazard Mater 434:128856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128856
Nosko O, Olofsson U (2017) Quantification of ultrafine airborne particulate matter generated by the wear of car brake materials. Wear 374–375:92–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2017.01.003
Obaidullah M, Bram S, De Ruyck J (2018) An overview of PM formation mechanisms from residential biomass combustion and instruments using in PM measurement. Int J Energy Environ Eng 12:41–50
Oroumiyeh F, Zhu Y (2021) Brake and tire particles measured from on-road vehicles: effects of vehicles mass and braking intensity. Atmos Environ 12:100121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2021.100121
Pant P, Harrison RM (2013) Estimation of the contribution of road traffic emissions to particulate matter concentrations from field measurements: a review. Atmos Environ 77:78–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.04.028
Perricone G, Wahlström J, Olofsson U (2016) Towards a test stand for standardized measurements of the brake emissions. Proc Inst Mech Eng d: J Automob Eng 230:1521–1528. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954407015616025
Perricone G, Alemani M, Metinöz I, Matĕjka V, Wahlström J, Olofsson U (2017) Towards the ranking of airborne particle emissions from car brakes – a system approach. Proc Inst Mech Eng d: J Automob Eng 231:781–797. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954407016662800
Peters TM, Leith D (2003) Concentration measurement and counting efficiency of the aerodynamic particle sizer 3321. J Aerosol Sci 34:627–634. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-8502(03)00030-2
Philippe F, Xiang M, Bressot C, Chen Y, Guingand F, Charles F, Loigerot J, Morgeneyer M (2019) Relevance of pin-on-disc and inertia dynamometer bench experiments for braking emission studies. J Phys Conf Ser 1323:012025. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1323/1/012025
Philippe F, Xiang M, Morgeneyer M, Chen Y, Charles P, Guingand F, Bressot C (2020) Emission rate assessment of airborne brake particles by characterization of the pad and disc surfaces from a pin-on-disc tribometer. Toxicol Res Appl 4:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/2397847320977782
Park J, Joo B, Seo H et al (2021) Analysis of wear induced particle emissions from brake pads during the worldwide harmonized light vehicles test procedure (WLTP). Wear 466–467:203539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2020.203539
Particle Measurement Programme (2020) TF2 on Brake Emission. https://wiki.unece.org/display/trans/PMP+TF2+on+Brake+Emissions. Accessed 29 May 2023
Querol X, Alastuey A, Ruiz CR, Artiñano B, Hansson HC, Harrison RM, Buringh E, Ten Brink HM, Lutz M, Bruckmann P, Straeh P, Schneider J (2004) Speciation and origin of PM10 and PM2.5 in selected European cities. Atmos Environ 38:6547–6555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.08.037
Samoli E, Atkinson R, Analitis A, Fuller GW, Green D, Mudway I, Anderson HR, Kelly FJ (2016) Associations of short-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution with cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions in London. UK Occup Environ Med 73:300–307. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2015-103136
Sanders PG, Xu N, Dalka TM, Maricq MM (2003) Airborne brake wear debris: size distributions, composition, and a comparison of dynamometer and vehicle tests. Environ Sci Technol 37:4060–4069. https://doi.org/10.1021/es034145s
Seo H, Park J, Kim YC, Lee JJ, Jang H (2021) Effect of disc materials on brake emission during moderate-temperature braking. Tribology International 163:107185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2021.107185
Simons A (2013) Road transport: new life cycle inventories for fossil-fuelled passenger cars and non-exhaust emissions in ecoinvent v3. Int J LCA 21:1299–1313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0642-9
Sinha A, Ischia G, Menapace C, Gialanella S (2020) Experimental characterization protocols for wear products from disc brake materials. Atmos 11:1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101102
Thorpe A, Harrison RM (2008) Sources and properties of non-exhaust particulate matter from road traffic: a review. Sci Total Environ 400:270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.06.007
Timmers VRJH, Achten PAJ (2016) Non-exhaust PM emissions from electric vehicles. Atmos Environ 134:10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.03.017
Tonolini P, Montesano L, Pola A, Landriani E, Gelfi M (2021) The effect of laser-classing on the wear behaviour of gray cast iron brake disc. Procedia Struct Integr 33:1152–1161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prostr.2021.10.129
Tutuianu M, Bonnel P, Ciuffo B, Haniu T, Ichikawa N, Marotta A, Pavlovic J, Steven H (2015) Development of the world-wide harmonized light duty test cycle (WLTC) and a possible pathway for its introduction in the European legislation. Trasp Res D Trasp Environ 40:61–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2015.07.011
Verma PC, Alemani M, Gialanella S, Lutterotti L, Olofsson U, Straffelini G (2016) Wear debris from brake system materials: a multi-analytical characterization approach. Tribol Internat 94:249–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2015.08.011
Vojtíšek-Lom M, Vaculík M, Pechout M et al (2021) Effects of braking conditions on nanoparticle emissions from passenger car friction brakes. Sci Total Environ 788:147779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147779
Volta A, Sforzini S, Camurati C, Teoldi F, Maiorana S, Croce A, Benfenati E, Perricone G, Lodi M, Viarengo A (2020) Ecotoxicological effects of atmospheric particulate produced by braking systems on aquatic and edaphic organisms. Environ Internat 137:105564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105564
Vouitsis E, Ntziachristos L, Pistikopoulos P, Samaras Z, Chrysikou L, Samara C, Papadimitriou C, Samaras P, Sakellaropoulos G (2009) An investigation on the physical, chemical and ecotoxicological characteristics of particulate matter emitted from light-duty vehicles. Environ Pollut 157:2320–2327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2009.03.028
Wahlström J, Lyua Y, Matjeka V, Söderberg A (2017) A pin-on-disc tribometer study of disc brake contact pairs with respect to wear and airborne particle emissions. Wear 384–385:124–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2017.05.011
Woo SH, Kim Y, Lee S, Choi Y, Lee S. (2021). Characteristics of brake wear particle (BWP) emissions under various test-driving cycles. Wear 480-481:203936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2021.203936
Woo S-H, Jang H, Lee S-B, Lee S (2022) Comparison of total PM emissions emitted from electric and internal combustion engine vehicles: An experimental analysis. Science of The Total Environment 842:156961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156961
Zhang T, Choi S, Ahn S, Nam C, Lee G (2021) Enclosure design for brake wear particle measurement using computational fluid dynamics. Energies 14:2356. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092356
Zum Hagen FHF, Mathissen M, Grabiec T, Hennicke T, Rettig M, Grochowicz J, Vogt R, Benter T (2019) Study of brake wear particle emissions: impact of braking and cruising conditions. Environ Sci Technol 53:5143–5151. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b07142
Funding
This research has received funding from the European Union under the LIFE program, specifically from the RE-BREATH (REduction of Break weaR Emissions in the Transport sector) project with the reference LIFE21-ENV-IT-RE-BREATH/101074269 and acronym: LIFE21-ENV-IT-RE-BREATH.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The study was conceived of and designed by Ettore Guerriero and Valerio Paolini. Maria Luisa Feo served as the first author and was responsible for data collection, analysis, and the initial draft of the manuscript. Marco Torre and Patrizio Tratzi also contributed to the data analysis and writing of manuscript sections. In addition, Francesca Battistelli, Laura Tomassetti, and Francesco Petracchini contributed to the study design and data collection. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript and approved the final version for submission.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Feo, M.L., Torre, M., Tratzi, P. et al. Laboratory and on-road testing for brake wear particle emissions: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 100282–100300 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-29229-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-29229-7