Abstract
Cultivation of microalgae and controlling its growth and performance in closed photobioreactors (PBRs) are easier than open pond systems for wastewater treatment. The performance of PBRs is influenced by geometry, hydrodynamic behavior, and mass transfer. Horizontal and vertical configurations as common designs of PBR are reviewed based on their features, advantages, and disadvantages. However, vertically operated PBRs like bubble columns are preferably used for utility-scale applications of microalgae-based processes. Moreover, an appropriate reactor design reduces the inhibitory effect of dissolved oxygen concentration produced by microalgae and consequently increases the level of available CO2 in the medium. Medium properties, superficial gas velocity, gas holdup, bubble sizes, shear stress, mixing time, sparger design, and the ratio of inner diameter to effective height are shown to influence the overall volumetric mass transfer coefficient (KLa) and PBR’s performance. The vertical PBRs like bubble columns provide a high mass transfer, a short liquid circulation time, and a long frequency of light/dark cycle for utility application of microalgae. Different flow regimes are obtained in PBRs based on the gas flow rate, inner diameter, and medium properties. Hydraulic retention time as the main operational parameter is determined in a batch mode for continuous wastewater treatment.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Not applicable.
Abbreviations
- HRAPs:
-
High-rate algae ponds
- PBR:
-
Photobioreactor
- k l :
-
Mass transfer coefficient (m h−1)
- a :
-
Specific interfacial area (m−1)
- k l a :
-
The volumetric mass transfer coefficient (h−1)
- K L :
-
The overall mass transfer coefficient (m h−1)
- K L a :
-
The overall volumetric mass transfer coefficient (h−1)
- DO:
-
Dissolved oxygen
- OPR:
-
The oxygen production rate
- OTR:
-
The oxygen transfer rate
- \({P}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{2}}\) :
-
The partial pressure of oxygen in equilibrium with DO (pa)
- \({C}_{\mathrm{O}2}^{*}\) :
-
The O2 saturation concentration in the liquid (mol L−1)
- C O2 :
-
The concentration of O2 at any time (mol L−1)
- C co2 :
-
The concentration of CO2 at any time (mol L−1)
- \({C}_{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}^{*}\) :
-
CO2 saturation concentration (mol L−1)
- C CO2 :
-
CO2 concentration in the liquid phase (mol L−1)
- H :
-
Henry’s constant (pa L mol−1)
- ε g :
-
The gas holdup
- U sg :
-
Superficial gas velocity (m s−1)
- d 32 :
-
Sauter mean diameter (mm)
- D CO2 :
-
The diffusivity of CO2 (cm2 s−1)
- D O2 :
-
The diffusivity of O2 (cm2 s−1)
- t c :
-
Liquid circulation time (s−1)
- U circ :
-
Circulation velocity (m s−1)
- HRT:
-
Hydraulic retention time (day)
- A d/A r :
-
The ratio of downcomer to riser surfaces
- μ L :
-
The liquid medium viscosity (pa s)
- ρ L :
-
Density (kg m−3)
References
Acién Fernández FG, Gómez-Serrano C, Fernández-Sevilla JM (2018) Recovery of nutrients from wastewaters using microalgae. Front Sustain Food Syst 2:59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.030
Adesanya VO, Vadillo DC, Mackley MR (2012) The rheological characterization of algae suspensions for the production of biofuels. J Rheol 56:925–939
Ashok V, Gupta SK, Shriwastav A (2019) Photobioreactors for wastewater treatment. In: Gupta SK, Bux F (eds) Application of microalgae in wastewater treatment. Springer, pp 383–409
Assunção J, Malcata FX (2020) Enclosed “non-conventional” photobioreactors for microalga production: a review. Algal Res 52:102107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2020.102107
Babcock RW, Malda J, Radway JC (2002) Hydrodynamics and mass transfer in a tubular airlift photobioreactor. J Appl Phycol 14:169–184. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019924226457
Banerjee S, Dasgupta S, Das D, Atta A (2020) Influence of photobioreactor configuration on microalgal biomass production. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 43:1487–1497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00449-020-02342-4
Barbosa MJ, Hadiyanto Wijffels RH (2003) Overcoming shear stress of microalgae cultures in sparged photobioreactors. Biotechnol Bioeng 85:78–85. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.10862
Besagni G, Di Pasquali A, Gallazzini L, Gottardi E, Colombo LPM, Inzoli F (2017) The effect of aspect ratio in counter-current gas-liquid bubble columns: experimental results and gas holdup correlations. Int J Multiph Flow 94:53–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.02.025
Bitog JPP, Lee IB, Oh HM, Hong SW, Seo IH, Kwon KS (2014) Optimised hydrodynamic parameters for the design of photobioreactors using computational fluid dynamics and experimental validation. Biosyst Eng 122:42–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2014.03.006
Blanco A, García-Abuín A, Gómez-Díaz D, Navaza JM (2013) Chemical reaction effect upon gas–liquid interfacial area in a bubble column reactor. Int J Chem React Eng 11(1):587–593. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijcre-2012-0075
Blažej M, Kiša M, Markoš J (2004) Scale influence on the hydrodynamics of an internal loop airlift reactor. Chem Eng Proc: Proc Intensif 43:1519–1527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2004.02.003
Boonchai R, Seo GT, Park DR, Seong CY (2012) Microalgae photobioreactor for nitrogen and phosphorus removal from wastewater of sewage treatment plant. Int J Biosci Biochem Bioinforma 2:407–410. https://doi.org/10.7763/IJBBB.2012.V2.143
Carvalho AP, Xavier Malcata F (2001) Transfer of carbon dioxide within cultures of microalgae: plain bubbling versus hollow-fiber modules. Biotechno Prog 17:265–272. https://doi.org/10.1021/bp000157v
Carvalho AP, Meireles LA, Malcata FX (2006) Microalgal reactors: a review of enclosed system designs and performances. Biotechnol Prog 22:1490–1506. https://doi.org/10.1021/bp060065r
Cerri MO, Baldacin JC, Cruz Antonio JG, Hokka OH, Badino AC (2010) Prediction of mean bubble size in pneumatic reactors. Biochem Eng J 53:12–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2009.03.009
Chai X, Zhao X, Baoying W (2012) Biofixation of carbon dioxide by ChlorococcumSp in a photobioreactor with polytetrafluoroethene membrane sparger. Afr J Biotechnol 11:7445–7453
Chavada N (2012) Optimization of vertical photobioreactors, In: Chavada, N., editor. Degree of. master of science in chemical engineering [thesis]. Dayton, Ohio: Submitted to the School of Engineering of University of Dayton
Chen Z, Jiang Z, Zhang X, Zhang J (2016) Numerical and experimental study on the CO2 gas–liquid mass transfer in flat-plate airlift photobioreactor with different baffles. Biochem Eng J 106:129–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2015.11.011
Chinnasamy S, Bhatnager A, Claxton R, Das KC (2010) Biomass and bioenergy production potential of microalgae consortium in open and closed bioreactors using untreated carpet industry effluent as growth medium. Bioresour Technol 101:6751–6760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.09
Chisti MY (1989) Airlift bioreactor, Elsevier Applied Science, London, New York, pp18, 22, 256
Chisti Y (1998) Pneumatically agitated bioreactors in industrial and environmental bioprocessing: hydrodynamics, hydraulics and transport phenomena. Appl Mech Rev 51:33–112. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3098989
Chisti Y (1999) Shear sensitivity. In: Flickinger MC, Drew SW (eds) Encyclopedia of bioprocess technology: fermentation, biocatalysis, and bioseparation, vol 5. Wiley, New York, pp 2379–2406
Chisti Y (2007) Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol Adv 25:294–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.02.001
Chisti Y (2008) Biodiesel from microalgae beats bioethanol. Trends Biotechnol 26:126–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2007.12.002
Chisti MY, Halard B, Moo-Young M (1988) Liquid circulation in airlift reactors. Chem Eng Sci 43(3):451–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(88)87005-2
Contreras A, Garcia F, Molina E, Merchuk J (1998) Interaction between CO2- mass transfer, light availability, and hydrodynamic stress in the growth of Phaeodactylum tricornutum in a concentric tube airlift photobioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 60:317–325
de Souza Kirne PC, de Souza Vandenberghe LP, Soccol CR, de Carvalho JC (2022) Mixing and agitation in photobioreactors. In: Thatoi H, Mohapatra S, Kumar Das S (eds) Innovations in fermentation and phytopharmaceutical technologies. Elsevier, pp 13–35
Deckwer WD, Louisi L, Zaidi A, Ralek M (1980) Hydrodynamic properties of the fischer tropsch slurry process. Ind Eng Chem Process Des Dev19:699–708. https://doi.org/10.1021/i260076a032
Dejaloud A, Vahabzadeh F, Habibi A (2018) Hydrodynamics and oxygen transfer characterization in a net draft tube airlift reactor with water-in-diesel microemulsion. Fuel Proc Technol 171:265–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2017.11.027
Dursun G, Akosman C (2006) Gas–liquid interfacial area and mass transfer coefficient in a co‐current down flow contacting column. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 81(12):1859–1865. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.1611
Elgozali A, Linek V, Fialová M, WeinZahradnı́k OJ (2002) Influence of viscosity and surface tension on performance of gas–liquid contactors with ejector type gas distributor. Chem Eng Sci 57:2987–2994. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(02)00165-3
Fair JR (1967) Designing gas-sparged reactors. Chem Eng 74:67–74
Fernandez Sevilla JM, Ceron Garcia MC, Sanchez Miron A, Belarbi H, Garcia Camacho F, Molina Grima E (2004) Pilot-plant-scale outdoor mixotrophic cultures of Phaeodactylum tricornutum using glycerol in vertical bubble column and airlift photobioreactors: studies in fed-batch mode. Biotechnol Prog 20:728–736. https://doi.org/10.1021/bp034344f
Fu CC, Wu WT, Lu SY (2003) Performance of airlift bioreactors with net draft tube. Enzyme Microb Technol 33:332–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-0229(03)00151-0
García J, Mujeriego R, Hernández-Mariné M (2000) High rate algal pond operating strategies for urban wastewater nitrogen removal. J Appl Phycol 12:331–339
García J, Green BF, Lundquist T, Mujeriego R, Hernández-Mariné M, Oswald WJ (2006) Long term diurnal variations in contaminant removal in high rate ponds treating urban wastewater. Bioresour Technol 97:1709–1715
Heijnen JJ, van’t Riet K (1984) Mass transfer, mixing and heat transfer phenomena in low viscosity bubble column reactors. Chem Eng J 28:B21–B42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0300-9467(84)85025-X
Hikita H, Asai S, Tanigawa K, Segawa K, Kitao M (1980) Gas hold-up in bubble columns. Chem Eng J 20(1):59–67
Hodaifa G, Martinez ME, Orpez R, Sanchez S (2010) Influence of hydrodynamic stress in the growth of Scenedesmus obliquus using a culture medium based on olive-mill wastewater. Chem Eng Process 49:1161–1168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2010.08.017
Honda R, Boonnorat J, Chiemchaisri C, Chiemchaisri W, Yamamoto K (2012) Carbon dioxide capture and nutrients removal utilizing treated sewage by concentrated microalgae cultivation in a membrane photobioreactor. Bioresour Technol 125:59–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.08.138
Huang Q, Yang C, Yu G, Mao ZS (2010) CFD simulation of hydrodynamics and mass transfer in an internal airlift loop reactor using a steady two-fluid model. Chem Eng Sci 65:5527–5536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2010.07.021
Huang Q, Jiang F, Wang L, Yang C (2017) Design of photobioreactors for mass cultivation of photosynthetic organisms. Engineering 3:318–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENG.2017.03.020
Hulatt CJ, Thomas DN (2011) Productivity, carbon dioxide uptake and net energy return of microalgal bubble column photobioreactors. Bioresour Technol 102:5775–5787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.02.025
Janssen M, Tramper J, Mur LR, Wijffels RH (2003) Enclosed outdoor photobioreactors: light regime, photosynthetic efficiency, scale-up, and future prospects. Biotechnol Bioeng 81:193–210. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.10468
Jhawar AK, Prakash A (2014) Bubble column with internals: effects on hydrodynamics and local heat transfer. Chem Eng Res Des 92:25–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2013.06.016
Joshi JB (1980) Axial mixing in multiphase contactors—a unified approach. Trans I Chem E 58:155–165
Joshi JB (2001) Computational flow modelling and design of bubble column reactors. Chem Eng Sci 56:5893–5933. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(01)00273-1
Khoo CG, Lam MK, Lee KT (2019) Microscale and macroscale modeling of microalgae cultivation in photobioreactor: a review and perspective. In: Hosseini M (ed) Advances in feedstock conversion technologies for alternative fuels and bioproducts. Elsevier, Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy, pp 1–19
Kilonzo PM, Margaritis A, Bergougnou M (2010) Hydrodynamics and mass transfer characteristics in an inverse internal loop airlift-driven fibrous-bed bioreactor. Chem Eng J 157:146–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2009.11.023
Klein J, Maia J, Vicente AA, Domingues L, Teixeira JA, Jurascik M (2005) Relationships between hydrodynamics and rheology of flocculating yeast suspensions in a high-cell-density airlift bioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 89:393–399. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.20335
Kommareddy A, Anderson G (2003) Mixing and eddie currents in a modified bubble column reactor . https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gary-Anderson-4/publication/251410695_Mixing_and_Eddie_Currents_in_a_Modified_Bubble_Column_Reactor/links/55c2936708aeb975673e4679/Mixing-and-Eddie-Currents-in-a-Modified-Bubble-Column-Reactor.pdf
Kumar K, Das D (2012) Growth characteristics of Chlorella sorokiniana in airlift and bubble column photobioreactors. Bioresour Technol 116:307–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.03.074
Kumar K, Dasgupta CN, Nayak B, Lindblad P, Das D (2011) Development of suitable photobioreactors for CO2 sequestration addressing global warming using green algae and Cyanobacteria. Bioresour Technol 102:4945–4953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.01.054
Kurano N, Miyachi S (2005) Selection of microalgal growth model for describing specific growth rate-light response using extended information criterion. J Biosci Bioeng 100(4):403–408. https://doi.org/10.1263/jbb.100.403
Luna-Brito MJ, Sacramento-Rivero JC, Baz-Rodríguez SA (2018) Effects of medium composition and gas superficial velocity on mass transfer during microalgae culturing in a bubble column photobioreactor. Ind Eng Chem Res 57(50):17058–17063. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.8b03940
Luo HP, Al-Dahhan MH (2004) Analyzing and modeling of photobioreactors by combining first principles of physiology and hydrodynamics. Biotechnol Bioeng 85:382–393. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.10831
Luo Y, Le-Clech P, Henderson RK (2017) Simultaneous microalgae cultivation and wastewater treatment in submerged membrane photobioreactors: a review. Algal Res 24:425–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2016.10.026
Manjrekar ON, Sun Y, He L, Tang YJ, Dudukovic MP (2017) Hydrodynamics and mass transfer coefficients in a bubble column photo-bioreactor. Chem Eng Sci 168:55−66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2017.04.016
Mata TM, Martins AA, Caetano NS (2010) Microalgae for biodiesel production and other applications: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 14:217–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.07.020
Merchuk JC, Garcia-Camacho F, Molina-Grima E (2007) Photobioreactor design and fluid dynamics. Chem Biochem Eng Q 21:345–355
Miron AS, Gomez AC, Camacho FG, Grima EM, Chisti Y (1999) Comparative evaluation of compact photobioreactors for large-scale monoculture of microalgae. J Biotechnol 70:249–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1656(99)00079-6
Mirón SA, Camacho FG, Contreras AG, Molina EG, Chisti Y (2000) Bubble-column and airlift photobioreactors for algal culture. AIChE J 46:1872–1887
Mohagheghian S, Elbing BR (2018) Characterization of bubble size distributions within a bubble column. Fluids 3:13. https://doi.org/10.3390/fluids3010013
Mohagheghian S, Still AL, Elbing BR, Ghajar AJ (2018) Study of bubble size, void fraction, and mass transport in a bubble column under high amplitude vibration. Chem Eng 2:16. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemengineering2020016
Mohsenpour SF, Hennige S, Willoughby N, Adeloye A, Gutierrez T (2021) Integrating micro-algae into wastewater treatment: a review. Sci Total Environ 752:142168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142168
Molina E, Contreras A, Chisti Y (1999) Gas holdup, liquid circulation and mixing behaviour of viscous Newtonian media in a split-cylinder airlift bioreactor. Food Bioprod Process 77:27–32. https://doi.org/10.1205/096030899532222
Molina E, Fernández J, Acién F, Chisti Y (2001) Tubular photobioreactor design for algal cultures. J Biotechnol 92:113–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1656(01)00353-4
Morita M, Watanabe Y, Saiki H (2000) Investigation of photobioreactor design for enhancing the photosynthetic productivity of microalgae. Biotechnol Bioeng 69:693–769
Ndiaye M, Gadoin E, Gentric C (2018) CO2 gas liquid mass transfer and kLa estimation: numerical investigationin the context of airlift photobioreactor scale-up. Chem Eng Res Des 133:90–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2018.03.001
Nedeltchev S, Schumpe A (2008) A new approach for the prediction of gas holdup in bubble columns operated under various pressures in the homogeneous regime. J Chem Eng Jpn 41:744–755. https://doi.org/10.1252/jcej.08we005
Ogwueleka TC, Samson B (2020) The effect of hydraulic retention time on microalgae-based activated sludge process for Wupa sewage treatment plant, Nigeria. Environ Monit Assess 192:271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-8229-y
Ojha A, Al-Dahhan M (2018) Local gas holdup and bubble dynamics investigation during microalgae culturing in a split airlift photobioreactor. Chem Eng Sci 175:185–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2017.08.026
Othmer DF, Thakar MS (1953) Correlating diffusion coefficients in liquids. Ind Eng Chem 45:589–593. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie50519a036
Özbek B, Gayik S (2001) The studies on the oxygen mass transfer coefficient in a bioreactor. Process Biochem 36:729–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-9592(00)00272-7
Panda AK, Mishra S, Bisaria VS, Bhojwani SS (1989) Plant cell reactors—a perspective. Enzyme Microb Technol 11:386–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/0141-0229(89)90132-4
Pirouzi A, Nosrati M, Shojaosadati SA, Shakhesi S (2014) Improvement of mixing time, mass transfer and power consumption in an external loop airlift photobioreactor for microalgae cultures. Biochem Eng J 87:25–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2014.03.012
Polli M, Di Stanislao M, Bagatin R, Abu Bakr E, Masi M (2002) Bubble size distribution in the sparger region of bubble columns. Chem Eng Sci 57:197–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(01)00301-3
Posten C (2009) Design principles of photo-bioreactors for cultivation of microalgae. Eng Life Sci 9(3):165–177. https://doi.org/10.1002/elsc.200900003
Poulsen BR, Iversen JJL (1997) Characterization of gas transfer and mixing in a bubble column equipped with a rubber membrane diffuser. Biotechnol Bioeng 58:633–641
Pulz O (2001) Photobioreactors: production systems for phototrophic microorganisms. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 57:287–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002530100702
Reid RC, Prausnitz JM, Poling BE (1987) The properties of gases and liquids, 4th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York, p 741
Reyna-Velarde R, Cristiani-Urbina E, Hernandez-Melchor DS, Thalasso F, Canizares-Villanueva RO (2010) Hydrodynamic and mass transfer characterization of a flat-panel airlift photobioreactor with high light path. Chem Eng Process 49:97–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2009.11.014
Rezvani F, Sarrafzadeh MH (2020) Autotrophic granulation of hydrogen consumer denitrifiers and microalgae for nitrate removal from drinking water resources at different hydraulic retention times. J Environ Manage 268:110674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110674
Rezvani F, Sarrafzadeh MH (2023) Basic principles and effective parameters for microalgae–bacteria granulation in wastewater treatment: a mini review. Int J Environ Sci Technol 20:3371–3384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04736-1
Rezvani F, Sarrafzadeh MH, Oh HM (2020) Hydrogen producer microalgae in interaction with hydrogen consumer denitrifiers as a novel strategy for nitrate removal from groundwater and biomass production. Algal Res 45:101747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2019.101747
Richmond A, Zou N (1999) Efficient utilisation of high photon irradiance for mass production of photoautotrophic micro-organisms. J Appl Phycol 11:123–127. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008033906840
Rinanti A, Kardena E, Astuti DI, Dewi K (2013) Integrated vertical photobioreactor system for carbon dioxide removal using phototrophic microalgae. Niger J Technol 32:225–232
Rubio FC, Acien Fernandez FG, Sanchez Perez JA, Camacho FG, Grima EM (1999) Prediction of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration profiles in tubular photobioreactors for microalge culture. Biotechnol Bioeng 62:71–86
Ryu HJ, Oh KK, Kim YS (2009) Optimization of the influential factors for the improvement of CO2 utilization efficiency and CO2 mass transfer rate. J Ind Eng Chem 15(4):471–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2008.12.012
Sánchez Mirón A, García Camacho F, Contreras Gómez A, Molina Grima E, Chisti Y (1999) Comparative evaluation of compact photobioreactors for large-scale monoculture of microalgae. J Biotechnol 70:249–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1656(99)00079-6
Schäfer R, Merten C, Eigenberger G (2002) Bubble size distributions in a bubble column reactor under industrial conditions. Exp Therm Fluid Sci 26:595–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0894-1777(02)00189-9
Shamlou PA, Pollard D, Ison A (1995) Volumetric mass transfer coefficient in concentric-tube airlift bioreactors. Chem Eng Sci 50:1579–1590. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(94)00517-U
Sierra E, Acién FG, Fernández JM, García JL, González C, Molina Grima E (2008) Characterization of a flat plate photobioreactor for the production of microalgae. Chem Eng J 138:136–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2007.06.004
Solmaz A, Işik M (2019) Effect of sludge retention time on biomass production and nutrient removal at an algal membrane photobioreactor. Bioenergy Res 12:197–204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-019-9961-4
Solmaz A, Işık M (2020) Optimization of membrane photobioreactor; the effect of hydraulic retention time on biomass production and nutrient removal by mixed microalgae culture. Biomass Bioenergy 142:105809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2020.105809
Sutherland DL, Howard-Williams C, Turnbull MH, Broady PA, Craggs RJ (2014) Enhancing microalgal photosynthesis and productivity in wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds for biofuel production. Bioresour Technol 184:222–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.10.074
Tay JH, Zeng JL, Sun DD (2003) Effects of hydraulic retention time on system performance of a submerged membrane bioreactor. Separ Sci Technol 38:851–868. https://doi.org/10.1081/SS-120017630
Thamer AA, Issa Al haboubi NA (2020) Study the effect of different types impellers on the transfer coefficient in photobioreactor. IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng 928:022144
Torzillo G, Pushpharaj B, Bocci F, Balloni W, Materassi R, Florenzano G (1986) Production of Spirulina biomass in closed photobioreactors. Biomass 11:61–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/0144-4565(86)90021-1
Tung HL, Tu CC, Wu WT (1998) Bubble characteristics and mass transfer in an airlift reactor with multiphase net draft tubes. Bioprocess Eng 18:323–328. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.11306
Ugwu CU, Aoyagi H, Uchiyama H (2007) Influence of irradiance, dissolved oxygen concentration, and temperature on the growth of Chlorella sorokiniana. Photosynthetiea 45:309–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11099-007-0052-y
Ugwu CU, Aoyagi H, Uchiyama H (2008) Photobioreactors for mass cultivation of algae. Bioresour Technol 99:4021–4028
Ugwuishiwu BO, Obi OF, Nwakaire JN (2013) Development of a photobioreactor for microalgae culture. Niger J Technol 32:148–151
Valigore JM, Gostomski PA, Wareham DG, O’sullivan AD (2012) Effects of hydraulic and solids retention times on productivity and settleability of microbial (microalgal-bacterial) biomass grown on primary treated wastewater as a biofuel feedstock. Water Res 46:2012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.03.023
Van’t Riet K, Tramper J (1991) Basic bioreactor design. Marcel Dekker, New York, p 465
Vargas S, Gómez-Pérez C-A, Espinosa J (2017) A method for the design of a continuous microalgae culture photobioreactor in series with recirculation system. CT&F - Ciencia, Tecnología y Futuro 7:101–116. https://doi.org/10.29047/01225383.68
Wadaugsorn K, Limtrakul S, Vatanatham T, Ramachandran PA (2016) Hydrodynamic behaviors and mixing characteristics in an internal loop airlift reactor based on CFD simulation. Chem Eng Res Des 113:125–139
Waghmare YG, Rice RG, Knopf FC (2008) Mass transfer in a viscous bubble column with forced oscillations. Ind Eng Chem Res 47:5386–5394. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie800041k
Wang B, Lan CQ, Horsman M (2012) Closed photobioreactors for production of microalgal biomasses. Biotechnol Adv 30(4):904–912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.01.019
Wang C, Lan CQ (2018) Effects of shear stress on microalgae—a review. Biotechnol Adv 36:986–1002
Wang CY, Fu CC, Liu YC (2007) Effects of using light-emitting diodes on the cultivation of Spirulina platensis. Biochem Eng J 37:21–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2007.03.004
Westerhoff P, Hu Q, Esparza-Soto M, Vermaas W (2010) Growth parameters of microalgae tolerant to high levels of carbon dioxide in batch and continuous-flow photobioreactors. Environ Technol 31:523–532
Wilkinson PM, Spek AP, van Dierendonck LL (1992) Design parameters estimation for scale-up of high-pressure bubble columns. AIChE J 38(544):554. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690380408
Wolf-Gladro D, Riebesell U (1997) Diffusion and reactions in the vicinity of plankton: a refined model for inorganic carbon transport. Mar Chem 59:17–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4203(97)00069-8
Xu S, Wu D, Hu Z (2014) Impact of hydraulic retention time on organic and nutrient removal in a membrane coupled sequencing batch reactor. Water Res 55:12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.046
Xue SW, Yin X (2006) Numerical simulation of flow behaviour and mass transfer in internal airlift-loop reactor. Chem Eng 34:24–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2010.07.021
Zarei Z, Malekshahi P, Morowvat MH, Rahimi R, Niknezhad SV (2021) Effect of gas holdup on CO2 biofixation by Spirulina sp. in the 20-liter airlift bioreactor. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-599470/v1. https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-599470/v1_covered.pdf?c=1631872665
Zhang W, Yong Y, Zhang G, Yang C, Mao Z (2014) Mixing characteristics and bubble behavior in an airlift internal loop reactor with low aspect ratio. Chin J Chem Eng 22:611–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1004-9541(14)60089-6
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Fariba Rezvani: writing original draft preparation, writing, editing, and validation.
Khosrow Rostami: reviewing, editing, and supervision.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Highlights
• Closed PBRs are more efficient than open pond systems.
• Mass transfer rate for O2 and CO2 is high in vertical PBRs.
• Scale-up of vertical PBRs is more convenient than horizontal.
• Bubble size influences effectively on both gas holdup and mass transfer.
• Increasing height-to-diameter ratio leads to higher gas holdup.
• HRT for large-scale application is preferably determined in a batch mode.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Rezvani, F., Rostami, K. Photobioreactors for utility-scale applications: effect of gas–liquid mass transfer coefficient and other critical parameters. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 76263–76282 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27644-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27644-4