Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Evaluation of heavy metals in water and sediments, pollution, and risk indices of Naltar Lakes, Pakistan

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the physicochemical parameters of water and sediments in the Naltar Lakes, northern Pakistan. Water and sediments were sampled and analyzed for physicochemical parameters. Heavy metals such as iron (Fe, 11% and 12%), nickel (Ni, 100% and 88%), chromium (Cr, 22% and 12%), and arsenic (As, 0% and 12%) of sampling sites had surpassed the threshold of drinking water set by world health organization (WHO) in the Naltar Lake I (Naltar I) and Naltar Lake II (Naltar II), respectively. Water quality parameters were evaluated for the drinking and irrigation water quality indices (WQI). Drinking WQI values were found within the excellent category for Naltar I and Naltar II, except for the 6% of sampling sites observed in the good category. Toxic parameter concentrations were used for the risk indices, which revealed the highest average daily dose (ADD) values of 138 µg/kg-day and hazard quotient (HQ) 1.8 for children through nitrate (NO3) and As consumption in drinking water from the Naltar I and Naltar II, respectively. Water of the Naltar Lakes were characterized by rock weathering dominance. Heavy metal concentrations of sediments showed a moderate level of contamination that poses a low risk to the Naltar Lake ecosystem.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data supporting this study’s findings are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Code availability

Not applicable.

References

  • Adimalla N, Qian H (2019) Groundwater quality evaluation using water quality index (WQI) for drinking purposes and human health risk (HHR) assessment in an agricultural region of Nanganur, south India. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 176:153–161

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Adji BK, Octodhiyanto I, Rahmayanti R, Nugroho AP (2022) Microplastic pollution in Rawa Jombor Reservoir, Klaten, Central Java, Indonesia: accumulation in aquatic fauna, heavy metal interactions, and health risk assessment. Water Air Soil Pollut 233:1–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Amin S, Muhammad S, Fatima H (2021) Evaluation and risks assessment of potentially toxic elements in water and sediment of the Dor River and its tributaries, Northern Pakistan. Environ Technol Innov 21:101333

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • APHA (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, Federation, Water Environmental American Public Health, Association. American Public Health Association (APHA), Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Arain MB, Kazi TG, Baig JA, Jamali MK, Afridi HI, Shah AQ, Jalbani N, Sarfraz RA (2009) Determination of arsenic levels in lake water, sediment, and foodstuff from selected area of Sindh, Pakistan: estimation of daily dietary intake. Food Chem Toxicol 47:242–248

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burki SJ (2015) Historical Dictionary of Pakistan. Rowman & Littlefield, p 228

  • Buzea C, Pacheco I (2020) Heavy metals: definition, toxicity, and uptake in plants. In: Cellular and Molecular Phytotoxicity of Heavy Metals. Springer, p 1–17

  • Chen H, Teng Y, Lu S, Wang Y, Wang J (2015) Contamination features and health risk of soil heavy metals in China. Sci Total Environ 512:143–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen H, Jing L, Yao Z, Meng F, Teng Y (2019) Prevalence, source and risk of antibiotic resistance genes in the sediments of Lake Tai (China) deciphered by metagenomic assembly: a comparison with other global lakes. Environ Int 127:267–275

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cüce H, Kalipci E, Ustaoglu F, Baser V, Türkmen M (2022) Ecotoxicological health risk analysis of potential toxic elements accumulation in the sediments of Kızılırmak River. Int J Environ Sci Technol 19:10759–10772

    Google Scholar 

  • Cui L, Li J, Gao X, Tian B, Zhang J, Wang X, Liu Z (2022) Human health ambient water quality criteria for 13 heavy metals and health risk assessment in Taihu Lake. Front Environ Sci Eng 16:1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Dao V, Urban W, Hazra SB (2020) Introducing the modification of Canadian Water Quality Index. Groundw Sustain Dev 11:100457

    Google Scholar 

  • Epa US (2005) Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment, EPA/630/P-03/001F. Risk Assessment Forum, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghaderpoori M, Kamarehie B, Jafari A, Ghaderpoury A, Karami M (2018) Heavy metals analysis and quality assessment in drinking water – Khorramabad city, Iran. Data Brief 16:685–692

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldhaber SB (2003) Trace element risk assessment: essentiality vs. toxicity. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 38:232–242

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hakanson L (1980) An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control. A sedimentological approach. Water Res 14:975–1001

    Google Scholar 

  • Hou D, He J, Lü C, Ren L, Fan Q, Wang J, Xie Z (2013) Distribution characteristics and potential ecological risk assessment of heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd) in water and sediments from Lake Dalinouer, China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 93:135–144

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Islam MS, Ahmed MK, Habibullah-Al-Mamun M, Masunaga S (2015) Assessment of trace metals in fish species of urban rivers in Bangladesh and health implications. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 39:347–357

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jahangir TM, Khuhawar MY, Leghari SM, Mahar MT, Mahar KP (2015) Water quality and sediment assessment of Manchar Lake, Sindh, Pakistan: after effects of the super flood of 2010. Arab J Geosci 8:3259–3283

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Javed T, Ahmad N, Mashiatullah A (2018) Heavy metals contamination and ecological risk assessment in surface sediments of Namal Lake, Pakistan. Pol J Environ Stud 27:675–688

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karbassi AR, Monavari SM, Nabi Bidhendi GR, Nouri J, Nematpour K (2008) Metal pollution assessment of sediment and water in the Shur River. Environ Monit Assess 147:107–116

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kazmi AH, Jan MQ (1997) Geology and tectonics of Pakistan. Graphic Publishers

  • Khan S, Rehman S, Khan AZ, Khan MA, Shah MT (2010) Soil and vegetables enrichment with heavy metals from geological sources in Gilgit, northern Pakistan. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 73:1820–1827

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li Y, Chen H, Teng Y (2020) Source apportionment and source-oriented risk assessment of heavy metals in the sediments of an urban river-lake system. Sci Total Environ 737:140310

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lintern A, Leahy PJ, Heijnis H, Zawadzki A, Gadd P, Jacobsen G, Deletic A, McCarthy DT (2016) Identifying heavy metal levels in historical flood water deposits using sediment cores. Water Res 105:34–46

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu J, Han G (2020) Distributions and source identification of the major ions in Zhujiang River, Southwest China: examining the relationships between human perturbations, chemical weathering, water quality and health risk. Expos Health 12:849–862

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez AM, Fitzsimmons JN, Adams HM, Dellapenna TM, Brandon AD (2022) A time-series of heavy metal geochemistry in sediments of Galveston Bay estuary, Texas, 2017–2019. Sci Total Environ 806:150446

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mandal S, Lahiri S (2022) A review on extraction, preconcentration and speciation of metal ions by sustainable cloud point extraction. Microchem J 175:107150

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad S, Ahmad K (2020) Heavy metal contamination in water and fish of the Hunza River and its tributaries in Gilgit–Baltistan: evaluation of potential risks and provenance. Environ Technol Innov 20:101159

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad S, Shah MT, Khan S (2011) Health risk assessment of heavy metals and their source apportionment in drinking water of Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Microchem J 98:334–343

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad S, Ullah S, Ali W, Jadoon IAK, Arif M (2022) Spatial distribution of heavy metal and risk indices of water and sediments in the Kunhar River and its tributaries. Geocarto Int 37:5985–6003

    Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad S, Ullah I (2022a) Spatial and seasonal variation for water quality indices of Gomal Zam Dam and its tributaries in the South Waziristan District, Pakistan. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:29141–29151

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad S, Ullah R (2022b) Spatial distribution of heavy metals contamination in sediments of alpine lakes and potential risk indices, Northern Pakistan. Int J Environ Anal Chem. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2042527

  • Piper AM (1944) A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water-analyses. Eos Trans Am Geophys Union 25:914–928

    Google Scholar 

  • Saha P, Hossain M (2010) Geochemical and ecoto-xical approach for evaluation of heavy metal pollution in the Buriganga River Sediment. In: Proceedings of Bangladesh geotechnical conference

  • Saint-Jacques N, Brown P, Nauta L, Boxall J, Parker L, Dummer TJB (2018) Estimating the risk of bladder and kidney cancer from exposure to low-levels of arsenic in drinking water, Nova Scotia, Canada. Environ Int 110:95–104

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siddiqui E, Pandey J (2019) Assessment of heavy metal pollution in water and surface sediment and evaluation of ecological risks associated with sediment contamination in the Ganga River: a basin-scale study. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26:10926–10940

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel FR (2002) Environmental geochemistry of potentially toxic metals, 32. Springer

    Google Scholar 

  • Tokatli C, Islam MS (2022) Spatiotemporal variations and bio-geo-ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in sediments of a wetland of international importance in Turkey. Arab J Geosci 15:121

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tokatli C, Ustaoğlu F (2020) Health risk assessment of toxicants in Meriç River Delta Wetland, Thrace Region, Turkey. Environ Earth Sci 79:426

    Google Scholar 

  • Tokatli C, Uğurluoğlu A, Köse E, Çiçek A, Arslan N, Dayioğlu H, Emiroğlu Ö (2021) Ecological risk assessment of toxic metal contamination in a significant mining basin in Turkey. Environ Earth Sci 80:17

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tokatlı C (2022) Invisible face of COVID-19 pandemic on the freshwater environment: an impact assessment on the sediment quality of a cross boundary river basin in Turkey. Int J Sed Res 37:139–150

    Google Scholar 

  • Ullah R, Muhammad S, Jadoon IA (2019) Potentially harmful elements contamination in water and sediment: evaluation for risk assessment and provenance in the northern Sulaiman fold belt, Baluchistan, Pakistan. Microchem J 147:1155–1162

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ullah R, Muhammad S (2022) Potentially toxic elements contamination, risk assessment via consumption, and spatial distribution of pollution and evaluation indices in the alpine lakes, Pakistan. Int J Environ Anal Chem. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2098477

  • USEPA (1999) National recommended water quality criteria-correction. In: United States Environmental Protection Agency EPA 822-7-99-001. p 25

  • Ustaoğlu F, Islam MS, Tokatli C (2022) Ecological and probabilistic human health hazard assessment of heavy metals in Sera Lake Nature Park sediments (Trabzon, Turkey). Arab J Geosci 15:597

    Google Scholar 

  • Varol M, Şen B (2012) Assessment of nutrient and heavy metal contamination in surface water and sediments of the upper Tigris River, Turkey. Catena 92:1–10

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Varol M, Ustaoğlu F, Tokatlı C (2022) Ecological risks and controlling factors of trace elements in sediments of dam lakes in the Black Sea Region (Turkey). Environ Res 205:112478

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang D-Q, Yu Y-X, Zhang X-Y, Zhang S-H, Pang Y-P, Zhang X-L, Yu Z-Q, Wu M-H, Fu J-M (2012) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organochlorine pesticides in fish from Taihu Lake: their levels, sources, and biomagnification. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 82:63–70

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang W, Evans RD, Newman K, Toms A (2021) Automated separation and measurement of 226Ra and trace metals in freshwater, seawater and fracking water by online ion exchange chromatography coupled with ICP-MS. Microchem J 167:106321

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2011) Guidelines for drinking-water quality, vol 38, 4 edn. WHO chronicle, p 104–8

  • Wu J, Xue C, Tian R, Wang S (2017) Lake water quality assessment: a case study of Shahu Lake in the semiarid loess area of northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 76:1–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang Y, Song W, Lin H, Wang W, Du L, Xing W (2018) Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in global lakes: a review and meta-analysis. Environ Int 116:60–73

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yap CK, Pang BH (2011) Assessment of Cu, Pb, and Zn contamination in sediment of north western Peninsular Malaysia by using sediment quality values and different geochemical indices. Environ Monit Assess 183:23–39

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yotova G, Varbanov M, Tcherkezova E, Tsakovski S (2021) Water quality assessment of a river catchment by the composite water quality index and self-organizing maps. Ecol Indic 120:106872

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu K-C, Tsai L-J, Chen S-H, Ho S-T (2001) Chemical binding of heavy metals in anoxic river sediments. Water Res 35:4086–4094

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang L, Zhao L, Zeng Q, Fu G, Feng B, Lin X, Liu Z, Wang Y, Hou CJC (2020) Spatial distribution of fluoride in drinking water and health risk assessment of children in typical fluorosis areas in north China. Chemosphere 239:124811

Download references

Acknowledgements

Financial support from the Higher Education Commission, Pakistan, and the National Center of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, is highly acknowledged project # 20-17208/NRPU/R&D/HEC/2021. Mr. Rizwan Ullah and Mr. Wajid Ali of the National Center of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, are acknowledged for their technical support.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, 25130, Pakistan

    Said Muhammad

Authors
  1. Said Muhammad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Said Muhammad.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Author reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Consent for publication

Author approved for this publication.

Conflict of interest

The author declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Xianliang Yi

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Muhammad, S. Evaluation of heavy metals in water and sediments, pollution, and risk indices of Naltar Lakes, Pakistan. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 28217–28226 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24160-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24160-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation