Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Responding to the ‘Wicked Problem’ of Water Insecurity

  • Published:
Water Resources Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper highlights key trends and projections in water scarcity, reviews the ways that water security and water scarcity are most commonly understood, and explores possible responses. Based on a selected review of the literature, an explanation is provided of ways that water pricing can be applied to respond to water insecurity from both a demand and supply perspective. ‘Hard’ and also ‘soft’ approaches that include stakeholder, policy and decision processes are briefly reviewed as ways to promote water security. Collectively, the paper provides a guide about how decision makers might efficiently and equitably respond to the ‘wicked problem’ of water insecurity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Sustainable Development Goal 6 (see https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6) includes freshwater targets that, in addition to access to safe water and sanitation comprise targets for: improved water quality, water-use efficiency, the use of integrated water resource management, and capacity building. Based on data retrieved in July 2016 from 170 countries the proportion of a national population with access to sanitation ranges from 7% to 100% (mean of all countries 72%) while access to improved water varies from 32% to 100% (mean all countries 88%) United Nations (2016).

  2. Water extractions refer to physical withdrawals of water while water consumption refers to the difference between water withdrawals and the water returned to surface or groundwater sources after use. Irrigation typically has a high rate of water consumption of between 50 and 90% relative to amount of water extracted while household water consumption may consume between 5 and 20% of the water extracted.

  3. ‘Blue water’ is the water accessible from rivers, streams, human-made water storages and groundwater while ‘green water’ is freely available from precipitation or soil moisture.

  4. Jaeger et al. (2013, p. 4506) provide a valuable synthesis of how the marginal value of water gives an economic measure of water scarcity. Their definition of water scarcity is, however, more akin to the existing definitions of water security than to water scarcity, namely, “…water scarcity is fundamentally a normative, anthropocentric concept and, thus, can and should be distinguished from the related, purely descriptive notion of water deficit.” Thus, we argue that the use of a marginal benefit concept is more appropriate for a quantitative measure of water security, rather than water scarcity.

  5. Nikolakis and Grafton (2014, p. 25), writing in the context of water reallocation in Northern Australia, highlight that “…fairness is that all parties will give adequate consideration to the interests, property, rights and security of other parties in an exchange, so that all parties obtain a fair flow of the benefits and burdens from a system.”

References

  • Aeschbach-Hertig W, Gleeson T (2012) Regional strategies for the accelerating global problem of groundwater depletion. Nat Geosci. doi:10.1038/NDE01617

    Google Scholar 

  • Akter S, Grafton RQ, Merritt W (2014) Integrated hydro-ecological and economic modelling of environmental flows: Macquarie marshes, Australia. Agric Water Manag 145:98–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Althaus C, Bridman P, Davis G (2013) The Australian policy handbook. Allen and Unwin, Sydney

    Google Scholar 

  • Australian Public Service Commission (2007) Tackling wicked problems: a public policy perspective. Australian Public Service Commission, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Barberán R, Arbués F (2009) Equity in domestic water rates design. Water Resour Manag 23:2101–2118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brouwer H, Woodhill J (2016) The MSP guide: how to design and facilitate multi-stakeholder partnerships, Second edn. Rugby, UK, Practical Action Publishing

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Challen R (2000) Institutions, transaction costs, and environmental policy: institutional reform for water resources. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Chambouleyron A (2004) Optimal water metering and pricing. Water Resour Manag 18:305–319

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, N.W.W. (2015). Integrating Social Aspects of Water Consumption in Australian Cities in (Grafton, Q et al Eds) Understanding and Managing Urban Water in Transition Springer: New York.

  • Convery FJ (2013) Reflections-shaping water policy: what does economics have to offer? Rev Environ Econ Policy 7(1):156–174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Declaration HM (2000) Ministerial Declaration of The Hague on Water Security in the 21st Century Retrieved from http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents/world_water_forum_2/The_Hague_Declaration.pdf

  • Falkenmark M, Lundqust J, Widstrand C (1989) Macro-scale water scarcity requires micro-scale approaches: aspects of vulnerability in semi-arid development. Nat Res Forum 13:258–267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Famigletti JS (2014) The global groundwater crisis. Nat Clim Chang 4:945–948

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garrick D (2015) Water allocation in rivers under pressure: water trading, transactions costs and transboundary governance in the western US and Australia. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Garrick D, Whitten S, Coggan A (2013) Understanding the evolution and performance of water markets and allocation policy: a transaction costs analysis framework. Ecol Econ 88:195–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerten D, Heinke H, Hoff H, Biermans M, Fader K, Waha K (2011) Global water availability and requirements for future food production. J Hydrometeorol 12:885–899

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson, T. Wada, Y., Bierkins M.F.P, and Van Beek, L.P.H. (2012). Water balance of global aquifers revealed by groundwater footprint. Nature 488: 197–200.

  • Gleick PH (2002) Water management: soft water paths. Nature 418:373

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gleick, P., H. Cohen, M. Morikawa, M. Morrison, and M. J Palaniappan (2009), The world's water 2008–2009: the biennial report on freshwater resources rep. 1597265055, Pacific Institute for Studies in development, environment, and security, Washington, DC (EUA), Washington DC.

  • Grafton RQ, Kompas T (2007) Pricing Sydney water Australian. J Agric Resour Econ 51:227–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grafton RQ, Reinhardt W (2016) As assessment framework for resilient public policy. In: Young MD, Esau C (eds) Transformational change in environmental and natural resource management: guidelines for policy excellence. Milton Park, UK, Routledge

    Google Scholar 

  • Grafton RQ, Ward M (2008) Prices versus rationing: Marshallian surplus and mandatory water restrictions. Economic Record 84:S57–S65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grafton RQ, Chu HL, Stewardson M, Kompas T (2011) Optimal dynamic water allocation: irrigation extractions and environmental trade-offs in the Murray River, Australia. Water Resour Res 47:2011

    Google Scholar 

  • Grafton RQ et al (2012) Global insights about water. Climate Change and Governance Nature Climate Change 3:315–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grafton RQ, Chu L, Kompas T, Ward M (2014) Volumetric water pricing, social surplus and supply augmentation. Water Resources and Economics 6:74–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grafton RQ, Chu L, Kompas T (2015) Optimal water tariffs and supply augmentation for cost-of-service regulated water utilities. Util Policy 34:54–62

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grafton RQ, Horne J, Wheeler S (2016a) On the marketization of water: theory and evidence from the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia. Water Resour Manag 30:913–926

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grafton RQ et al (2016b) Responding to global challenges in food, energy, environment and water: risks and options assessment for decision-making. Asia and the pacific Policy Studies 3(2):275–299

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grey D, Sadoff CM (2007) Sink or swim? Water security for growth and development. Water Policy 9:545–571

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin R, Mjelde JW (2011) Distributing water’s bounty. Ecol Econ 72:116–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haddeland I, Heinke J, Biemans H, Eisner S, Fjorke M, Hanasaki N, Konzmann M, Ludwig F, Masaki Y, Scheww J, Stacke T, Tessler ZD, Wada Y, Wisser D (2014) Global water resources affected human interventions and climate change. PNAS 111(9):3251–3256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall JW, Grey D, Garrick D, Fung F, Brown C, Dadson SF, Sadoff CW (2014) Coping with the curse of freshwater variability. Science 346:429–430

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanemann WM (1997) Price and rate structures. In: Boland JJ, Hanemann M (eds) D.D. Baumann. Urban Water Demand Management and Planning. McGraw Hill, New York, pp 137–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Hellegers P, Lefaive X (2015) Water allocation reform: what makes it so difficult? Water Int 40(2):273–285

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirshleifer J, De Haven JC, Milliman JW (1960) Water supply economics, technology, and policy. A RAND Corporation Research Study, The University of Chicago Press, Chicgao

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard DW (2014) How to measure anything. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaeger WK, Platinga AJ, Chang H, Dello K, Grant G, Hulse D, McDonnell JJ, Lancaster S, Moradkhani H, Morzillo AT, Mote P, Nolin A, Santelmann M, Wu J (2013) Toward a formal definition of water scarcity in natural-human systems. Water Resour Res 49(4506–4517):2013. doi:10.1002/wrcr.20249

    Google Scholar 

  • Kariuki M. and Schwartz, J. (2005). Small-scale Private Service Providers of Water Supply and Electricity: A review of Incidence, Structure, Pricing and Operating Characteristics. Policy Research Working Paper: No. 3727, World Bank: Washington DC. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/8657/wps3727.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

  • King D, Schrag D, Dadi Z, Ye Q, Ghosh A (2016) Climate change a risk assessment. University of Cambridge, Centre for Science and Policy Retrieved from http://www.csap.cam.ac.uk/media/uploads/files/1/climate-change--a-risk-assessment-v9-spreads.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  • Letsoalo A, Blignault J, de Wet T, de Wit M, Hess S, Tol R, van Heerden J (2007) Triple dividends of water consumption charges in South Africa. Water Resour Res 43(5):W05412. doi:10.1029/200WR004076

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luckmann J, Flaig D, Grethe H, Siddig K (2016) Modelling Sectoirally differentiated water prices – water preservation and welfare gains through price reform. Water Resour Manag 30:2327–2342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meinzen-Dick R (2007) Beyond panaceas in water institutions. PNAS 104(39):15200–15205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mekonnen MM, Hoekstra AJ (2016) Four billion people facing severe water scarcity. Sci Adv 2. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1500323

  • Metlay D, Sarewitz D (2012) Decision strategies for addressing complex, “messy” problems. The Bridge 42:6–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore SM (2015) The development of water markets in China: progress, peril, and prospects. Water Policy 17:253–257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nikolakis W, Grafton RQ (2014) Fairness and justice in indigenous water allocations: insights from northern Australia. Water Policy 16:19–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olmstead SM (2010) The economics of managing scarce water resources. Rev Environ Econ Policy 4(2):179–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, L. (2016). What You Need to Know About the World's Water Wars. National Geographic. Accessed 3 February 2017 at http://news. nationalgeographic.com/2016/07/world-aquifers-water-wars/

  • Pohlner H (2016) Institutional change and the political economy of water megaprojects: China’s south-north water transfer. Glob Environ Chang 38:205–216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Productivity Commission (2011). Australia’s urban water sector. Final Inquiry Report Volume 1, No. 55. Canberra: Australia.

  • Pujol J, Raggi M, VIiaggi D (2006) The potential impact of markets for irrigation water in Italy and Spain: a comparison of two study areas. Aust J Agric Resour Econ 50:361–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raskin P, Gleick OP, Kirshen P, Pontius G, Strzepek K (1997) Water futures: assessment of long-range patterns and prospects. Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, Sweden Retrieved from https://www.sei-international.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/SEI-Report-WaterFutures-AssessmentOfLongRangePatternsAndProblems-1997.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  • Rinaudo J-D, Neveree N, Montiginoul M (2012) Simulating the impact of pricing policies on residential water demand: a southern France case study. Water Resour Manag 26:2057–2068

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rittel HW, Webber M (1973) Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sci 4:155–169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts N (2000) Wicked problems and network approaches to resolution. International Public Management Review 1:1 Accessed 3 February 2017 at http://journals.sfu.ca/ipmr/index.php/ipmr/article/view/175/175

    Google Scholar 

  • Shen, V. and Reddy, V.R. (2016). Water pricing in China and India: a comparative analysis. Water Policy (uncorrected proof).

  • Shen Y, Oki T, Kanae S, Hansaki N, Usumi N, Kiguchi M (2014) Projection of future world water resources under SRES scenarios: an integrated assessment. Hydrol Sci J 59:1775–1793

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsakiris G, Spiliotis M (2011) Planning against long term water scarcity: a fuzzy multi-criteria approach. Water Resour Manag 25(4):1103–1129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United Nations (2016) Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform Retrieved from: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6

  • United Nations University (2013) Water Security and the Global Water Agenda Retrieved from http://www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/analytical_brief_oct2013_web.pdf

  • Vörösmarty CJ, Green P, Salisburt J, Lammers RB (2000) Global water resources: vulnerability from climate change and population growth. Science 289:284–288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vörösmarty CJ, McIntyre PB, Gessner MO, Dudgeon D, Prusevich A, Green P, Glidden S, Bunn SE, Sullivan CA, Lierman CR, Davies PM (2010) Global threats to human water security and river biodiversity. Nature 467:555–561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wada Y, Bierkens MFP (2014) Sustainability of global water use: past reconstruction and future projections. Environmental Resource Letters 9. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/10/104003

  • Wada Y, Gleeson T, Esnault L (2014) Wedge approach to water stress. Nat Geosci 7:615–617

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank (2016a) UN Secretary-General and World Bank Group President Appoint the Members of the High-level Panel on Water Retrieved from: http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2016/04/21/un-secretary-general-and-world-bank-group-president-appoint-the-members-of-the-high-level-panel-on-water

  • World Bank (2016b) High and dry: climate change, water, and the economy. Washington D.C, World Bank

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • World Economic Forum (2016) The Global Risks Report 2016 (11th Edition) Retrieved from: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/Media/TheGlobalRisksReport2016.pdf

  • Zeitoun M, Lankford B, Krueger T, Forsyth T, Carter R, Hoekstra AY, Taylor R, Varis O, Cleaver F, Boelens R, Swatuk L, Tickner D, Scott CA, Mirumachi N, Matthews N (2016) Reductionist and integrative research approaches to complex water security policy challenges in Global. Environmental Change 39:143–154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zetland D (2011) The end of abundance: economic solutions to water scarcity. Aguanomics Press, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhong L, Mol APJ (2010) Water price reform in China: policy-making. Water Resour Manag 24:377–396

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Crawford School of Public Policy, The Australian National University, Building 132, Lennox Crossing, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia

    R. Quentin Grafton

  2. National University of Singapore, 21 Lower Kent Ridge Rd, 119077, Singapore

    R. Quentin Grafton

Authors
  1. R. Quentin Grafton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to R. Quentin Grafton.

Additional information

This paper is based on a plenary address given at the International Water Resource Economics Consortium on 12 September 2016 at the World Bank, Washington DC.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Quentin Grafton, R. Responding to the ‘Wicked Problem’ of Water Insecurity. Water Resour Manage 31, 3023–3041 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-017-1606-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-017-1606-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation