Abstract
The paper analyses the literature related to the underrepresentation of women in the scientific field to identify the factors that affect this underrepresentation worldwide. This literature review covers 470 papers—published in journals with the highest impact factor from 1985 to 2018—that address the factors that influence the access, participation, and progress of women in scientific careers. This literature review was based on the complete readings of the papers using thematic analysis. The factors that influence women’s access, participation and progress in careers related to science and technology are a complex problem with multiple interdependent factors. In addition, these vary according to the stages of women’s lives and cultural contexts. This paper proposes, based on the literature review, a comprehensive framework to explain the factors that influence the access, participation, and progress of women in science careers. The factors are grouped as follows: (a) individual, (b) family, (c) social, (d) educational, and (e) labor-economic. The proposed research is useful for researchers and policy makers because it introduces this phenomenon schematically and orderly identifies the gaps in past research studies, and evidences the need to conduct further research on this topic.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahuja, M. (2002). Women in the information technology profession: A literature review, synthesis and research agenda. European Journal of Information Systems,11(1), 20–24.
Alexander, Q. R., & Hermann, M. A. (2016). African-American women’s experiences in graduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education at a predominantly white university: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 9(4), 307–322. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039705.
Anker, R. (1997). La segregación profesional entre hombres y mujeres. Repaso de las teorías [Occupational segregation among men and women: A theoretical review]. en Revista Internacional del Trabajo, 116(3). Ginebra, Organización Internacional del Trabajo (OIT) Recuperado de https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/institutodelamujer/servaem/media/f01_r2_SegregacionProfesional_ANKER.pdf.
Aschbacher, P., Li, E., & Roth, E. (2010). Is science me? High School Students´ identities, participation and aspirations in science, engineering, and medicine. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,47(5), 564–582.
ASPIRES. (2013). Young people's science and career aspirations. England, London: King's College London. Retrieved on January 2020 from https://www.kcl.ac.uk/ecs/research/aspires/aspires-final-report-december-2013.pdf.
Astin, H., & Sax, L. (1996). Developing scientific talent in undergraduate women. In C. S. Davis, A. Ginorio, C. Hollenshead, B. Lazarus, & P. Rayman (Eds.), The equity equation: Fostering the advancement of women in the sciences, mathematics, and engineering (pp. 96–121). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Baillargeon, R., Kotovky, L., & Needham, A. (1995). The acquisition of physical knowledge in infancy. In D. Sperber & D. Premack (Eds.), Causal cognition: A multidisciplinary debate (pp. 79–116). New York, NY: Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review,85, 191–215.
Barnard, S., Powell, A., Bagilhole, B., & Dainty, A. (2009). Researching UK women professionals in SET: A critical review of current approaches. Gender, Science and Technology,2(3), 361–381.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The essential difference: The truth about the male and the female brain. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Beasley, M., & Fischer, M. (2012). Why they leave: The impact of stereotype threat on the attrition of women and minorities from science, math and engineering majors. Social Psychology of Education,15(4), 427–448.
Bevins, S., Brodie, E., & Brodie M. (2005). UK secondary school pupils' perceptions of science & engineering. A report for the Engineering & Physical Sciences Research Council & the Particle Physics & Astronomy Research Council (unpublished).
Blickenstaff, J. C. (2005). Women and science careers: Leaky pipeline or gender filter? Gender and Education,17(4), 369–386.
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Brown, M. (2004). The career development influence of family of origin: Considerations of race/ethnic group membership and class. The Counseling Psychologist,32(4), 587–595.
Buck, G. A., Ckark, V. L. P., Leslie-Pelecky, D., Lu, Y., & Cerda-Lizarraga, P. (2008). Examining the cognitive processes used by adolescent girls and women scientists identifying science role models. Science Education,92(4), 688–707.
Carli, L. L., Alawa, L., Lee, Y., Zhao, B., & Kim, E. (2016). Stereotypes about gender and Science: Women not equal scientists. Pshychology of Women Quarterly,40(2), 244–260.
Carli, L. L., & Eagly, A. H. (2016). Women face a labyrinth: An examination of metaphors for women leaders. Gender in Management,31(8), 514–527.
Carlone, H. B., & Johnson, A. (2007). Understanding the science experiences of successful women of color: Science identity as an analytic lens. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,44(8), 1187–1218.
Ceci, S. J. (2018). Women in academic science: Experimental findings from hiring studies. Educational Psychologist,53(1), 22–41.
Ceci, S., & Williams, W. (2011). Understanding current causes of women’s underrepresentation in science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the Unites States of America,108(8), 3157–3162.
Ceci, S., Ginther, D., Kahn, S., & William, W. (2014). Women in academic science: A changing landscape. Psychological Science in the Public Interest,15(3), 75–141.
Ceci, S., Williams, W., & Barnett, S. (2009). Women’s underrepresentation in science: Sociocultural and biological considerations. Psychological Bulletin,135(2), 218–261.
Cheryan, S., Drury, B. J., & Vichayapai, M. (2013). Enduring influence of stereotypical computer science role models on women´s academic aspirations. Psychology of Women Quarterly,37(1), 72–79.
Christine, M., O’Neill, M., Rutter, K., Young, G., & Medland, A. (2017). Understanding why women are under-represented in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem) within higher education: A regional case study. Production,27, 1–9.
CONCYTEC. (2015). Estudio sobre los diferentes factores que influyen en los jóvenes a inclinarse por una formación científico- técnica [Study on the factors that influence high school graduates’ decision to pursue a science or technical career]. Report No. 4. Retrieved on January 2020 from http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/handle/123456789/4957.
Copper, H. M. (1988). Organizing knowledge synthesis: A taxonomy of literature reviews. Knowledge in Society,1, 109.
Cronin, C., & Roger, A. (1999). Theorizing progress: Women in science, engineering, and technology in higher education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,36(6), 637–661.
Dahling, J., & Mindi, T. (2010). Contextual supports and barriers to academic choices: A policy-capturing analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior,77, 374–382.
Deboer, G. E. (1986). Perceived science ability as a factor in the course selections of men and women in college. Journal of Research and Science Teaching,23(4), 343–352.
Deemer, E. D., Thoman, D. B., Chase, J. P., & Smith, J. L. (2014). Feeling the threat: Stereotype threat as a conceptual barrier to women´s science career choice intentions. Journal of Career Development,41(2), 141–158.
Delisle, M. N., Guay, F., Senecal, C., & Larose, S. (2009). Predicting stereotype endorsement and academic motivation in women in science programs: A longitudinal model. Learning and Individual Differences,19(4), 468–475.
Diekman, A. B., Brown, E. R., Johnston, A. M., & Clark, E. K. (2010). Seeking congruity between goals and roles: A new look at why women opt of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, Careers. Psychological Science,21(8), 1051–1057.
Dryburgh, H. (1990s). Underrepresentation of girls and women in computer science: Classification of 1990s research. Journal of Educational Computing Research,23(2), 181–202.
Early, J. S. (2017). This is who i want to be! Exploring possible selves by interviewing women in science. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy,61(1), 75–83.
Eccles, J. (1994). Women’s educational and occupational choices. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 585–609.
Ellemers, N., Van den Heuvel, H., Gilder, D., Maass, A., & Bonvini, A. (2004). The underrepresentation of women in science: Differential commitment or the queen bee syndrome? British Journal of Social Psychology,43, 315–338.
Farías, G., García, M., Monforte, G., & Prott, L. (2014). Percepción personal y cualidades para le elección de una carrera profesional en negocios: un caso concreto [Personal perception and qualities for choosing a professional career in business: a specific case]. Revista Panamericana de Pedagogía, 21, 17–35. Retrieved from http://content.ebscohost.com/ContentServer.asp?T=P&P=AN&K=101641308&S=R&D=fua&EbscoContent=dGJyMNLe80Sepq84y9fwOLCmr1CeqK9SsK24Sa%2BWxWXS&ContentCustomer=dGJyMPGrr0q0rq9LuePfgeyx43zx.
Farmer, H. S., Wardrop, J. L., & Rotella, S. C. (1999). Antecedent factors differentiating women and men in science/nonscience careers. Psychology of Women Quarterly,23(4), 763–780.
Fereday, J., & Muir-Cochrane, E. (2006). Demonstrating rigor using thematic analysis: A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods,5, 1–11.
Fox, M. F. (2010). Women and men faculty in academic science and engineering: Social-organizational indicators and implications. American Behavioral Scientist,53(7), 997–1012.
Fox, M. F., Fonseca, C., & Bao, J. (2011). Work and family conflict in academic science: Patterns and predictors among women and men in research universities. Social Studies in Science,41(5), 715–735.
Frome, P. M., & Eccles, J. S. (1998). Parents' influence on children's achievement-related perceptions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,74(2), 435–452.
Furnham, A., Reeves, E., & Budhani, S. (2002). Parents think their sons are brighter that their daughters: Sex differences in parental self-estimations and estimations of their children´s multiple intelligences. Journal of Genetic Psychology,163, 24–39.
Glenn, B. P. (1996). The role of mentors for women in animal science: Perspectives from government. Journal of Animal Science,74(11), 2855–2859.
Goulden, M., Marson, M. A., & Frasch, K. (2011). Keeping women in the science pipeline. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,638, 141–162.
Gunderson, M. (1994). Comparable worth and gender discrimination: An international perspective. Geneva: ILO.
Gupta, N. (2007). Indian women in doctoral education in science and engineering—a study of informal milieu at the reputed Indian institutes of technology. Science Technology & Human Values,32(5), 507–533.
Hanson, S. (2007). Success in science among young African American women—The role of minority families. Journal of Family Issues,28(1), 3–33.
Henley, M. M. (2015). Women´s success in academic science: Challenges to breaking through the ivory ceiling. Sociology Compass,9(8), 668–680.
Holland, J. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments. New Jersey, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Hopkins, N. (2015). Reflecting on fifty years of progress for women in science. DNA and Cell Biology,34(3), 159–161.
Howe-Walsh, L., & Turnbull, S. (2016). Barriers to women leaders in academia: Tales from science and technology. Studies in Higher Education,41(3), 415–428.
Hyde, J. (1996). Meta-analysis and the psychology of gender differences. In B. Laslett, S. G. Kohlstedt, H. Longino, & E. Hammonds (Eds.), Gender and scientific authority. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Irwing, P., & Lynn, R. (2005). Sex differences in means and variability on the progressive matrices in university students: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychology,96, 505–524.
Hunt, J. (2016). Why do women leave science and engineering? ILR Review,69(1), 199–226.
Knights, D., & Richards, W. (2003). Sex discrimination in UK academia. Gender, Work and Organization,10(2), 214–238.
Kurup, A., & Mithreyi, R. (2011). Beyond family and societal attitudes to retain women in science. Current Science,100(1), 43–48.
Kuwahara, M. (2001). Japanese women in science and technology. Minerva,39(2), 203–216.
LaCosse, J., Sekaquaptewa, D., & Bennett, J. (2016). Step stereotypic attribution bias among women in an unwelcoming science setting. Psychology of Women Quarterly,40(3), 378–397.
Lagesen, V. (2008). A cyberfeminist utopia? Perceptions of gender and computer science among Malaysian women computer science students and faculty. Science Technology & Human Values,33(1), 5–27.
Maffia, D. (2008). Carreras de obstáculos, las mujeres en ciencia y tecnología [Obstacle course race: Women in science and technology]. Paper presented at the Seminar on Women Scientists in Havana. Retrieved on January 2020 from http://www.ragcyt.org.ar/descargas/5202_doc.pdf.
Manassero, A., & Vázquez, A. (2003). Los estudios de género y la enseñanza de las ciencias [Gender studies and science teaching]. Revista de Educación, 330, 251–280. Retrieved from https://www.mecd.gob.es/dctm/revista-de-educacion/articulosre330/re3301411213.pdf?documentId=0901e72b81258cd4.
McGinnis, J. R., & Pearsall, M. (1998). Teaching elementary science methods to women: A male professor's experience from two perspectives. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,35(8), 919–949.
Morganson, V. J., Jones, M. P., & Major, D. A. (2010). Understanding women´s underrepresentation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: The role of social coping. The Career Development Quarterly,59(2), 169–179.
Muñoz, E. A., & Weaver, F. S. (1997). Out of place—Ecuadorian women in science and engineering programs. Latin American Perspectives,24(4), 81–89.
Ong, M., Wright, C., Espinosa, L., & Orfield, G. (2011). Inside the double bind: A synthesis of empirical research on undergraduate and graduate women of color in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Harvard Educational Review,81(2), 172–208.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2007). Revised field science and technology (FOS) classification in the Frascati manual. Retrieved on January 2020 from https://unstats.un.org/unsd/EconStatKB/KnowledgebaseArticle10269.aspx.
Pell, A. (1996). Fixing the leaky pipeline: Women scientist in academia. Journal of Animal Science,74(11), 2843–2848.
Piscova, M. (2003). Women in science in Slovakia. Sociológia,35(6), 579–598.
Polino, C. (2012). Las ciencias en el aula y el interés por las carreras científico-tecnológicas: Un análisis de las expectativas de los alumnos de nivel secundario en Iberoamérica [Science in the classroom, and the interest in science and technology careers: An analysis of Ibero-American high school students’ expectations]. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación,58, 167–191.
Ramsey, L. R., Betz, D. E., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2013). The effects on an academic environment intervention on science identification among women in STEM. Social Psychology of Education,16(3), 377–397.
Rayman, P., & Brett, B. (1995). Women science majors—What makes a difference in persistence after graduation. Journal of Higher Education,66(4), 388–414.
Reskin, B. F., Koretz, J. F., & Francis, L. L. (1996). Women in science. Academe-Bulleting of the AAUP,82(3), 57–65.
Reuben, E., Sapienza, P., & Zingales, L. (2014). How stereotypes impair women's careers in science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,111(12), 4403–4408.
Sax, L., Lehman, K., Barthelemy, R., & Lim, G. (2016). Women in physics: A comparison to science, technology, engineering, and math education over four decades. Physics Review Physics Education Research,12(2), 1–17.
Schreiner, C., & Sjøberg, S. (2004). Sowing the Seeds of ROSE. Background, rationale, questionnaire development and data collection for ROSE (The Relevance of Science Education). Oslo: University of Oslo.
Scott, A. B., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2005). Parental emotional support, science self-efficacy, and choice of science major in undergraduate women. Career Development Quarterly,53(3), 263–273.
Settles, I. H., Cortina, L. M., Malley, J., & Stewart, A. (2006). The climate for women in academic science: The good, the bad, and the changeable. Psychology of Women Quarterly,30(1), 47–58.
Seymour, E. (1995). The loss of women from science, mathematics and engineering undergraduate majors: An explanatory account. Science Education,79(4), 437–473.
Sheltzer, J., & Smith, J. (2014). Elite male faculty in the life sciences employ fewer women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,111(28), 10107–10112.
Shin, Y.-J., & Kelly, K. (2013). Cross-cultural comparison of the effects of optimism, intrinsic motivation and family relations on vocational identity. The Career Development Quarterly,61, 141–160.
Smeding, A. (2012). Women in STEM: An investigation of their implicit gender stereotypes and stereotypes connectedness to math performance. Sex Roles,67(11–12), 617–629.
Smith, E. (2011). Women into science and engineering? British Educational Research Journal,37(6), 993–1014.
Smith, W. S., & Erb, T. O. (1986). Effect on women science career role models on early adolescents attitudes toward scientists and women in science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,23(8), 667–676.
Sonnert, G. (1999). Women in science and engineering: Advances, challenges, and solutions. Journal. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,869, 34–57.
Sonnert, G., Fox, M., & Adkins, K. (2007). Undergraduate women in science and engineering: Effects of faculty, fields, and institutions over time. Social Science Quarterly,88(5), 1333–1356.
Spelke, E. (2005). Sex differences in intrinsic aptitude for mathematics and science? A critical review. American Psychologist,60(9), 950–958.
Stake, J. E. (2003). Understanding male bias against girls and women in science. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,33(4), 667–682.
Stamm, J. (2010). Women in science—Why networking matters. European Review,18(2), 121–131.
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist,52(6), 613–629.
Stout, J. G., Dasgupta, N., Hunsinger, M., & McManus, M. A. (2011). Steming the tide: Using ingroup experts to inoculate women´s self-concept in STEM. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,100(2), 255–270.
Stout, J. G., Grunberg, V. A., & Ito, T. A. (2016). Gender roles and stereotypes about science careers help explain women and men´s science pursuits. Sex Roles,75(9–10), 490–499.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]. (2007). Science, technology, and gender: An international review. Paris: UNESCO.
VanLeuvan, P. (2004). Young women´s science/mathematics career goals from seventh grade to high school graduation. Journal of Educational Research,97(5), 248–267.
Vázquez, A., & Manassero, M. (2008). El declive de las actitudes hacia los estudiantes: un indicador inquietante para la educación científica [The decline in students’ attitudes: A disturbing indicator for science education]. REVISTA Eureka,5(3), 274–292.
Vázquez-Cupeiro, S. (2015). Ciencia, estereotipos y género: una revisión de los marcos explicativos [Science, stereotypes, and gender: A review of explanatory frameworks]. Convergencia: Revista de ciencias sociales,22(68), 177–202.
Ware, N. C., Steckler, N. A., & Leserman, J. (1985). Undergraduate women—Who chooses a science major. Journal of Higher Education,56(1), 73–84.
Warrington, M., & Younger, M. (2000). The other side of the gender gap. Gender and Education,12(4), 493–508.
Watt, H., & Eccles, J. (Eds.). (2008). Gender and occupational outcomes: Longitudinal assessments of individual, social and cultural influences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Weinburgh, M. (1995). Gender differences in student attitudes toward science: A meta-analysis of the literature from 1970 to 1991. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,32(4), 387–398.
Whitelegg, L. (2001). Girls in science education: Of rice and fruit trees. In M. Lederman & I. Bartsch (Eds.), The gender and science reader (pp. 373–382). New York: Routledge.
Young, D. M., Rudman, L. A., Buettner, H. M., & McLean, M. C. (2013). The influence of female role models on women´s implicit science cognitions. Psychology of Women Quarterly,37(3), 283–292.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Avolio, B., Chávez, J. & Vílchez-Román, C. Factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of women in science careers worldwide: a literature review. Soc Psychol Educ 23, 773–794 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-020-09558-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-020-09558-y