The reactivity of think-alouds in writing research: quantitative and qualitative evidence from writing in English as a foreign language

Abstract

The reactivity of think-alouds (TAs) (i.e., their effects on thinking) has remained an inevitable concern whenever their use is considered or evaluated. This paper reports findings from a study that involved 85 Chinese sophomores, who, having received some instruction in diction, and then written a narrative in English as a baseline task, completed a similar main writing task, either silently or while thinking aloud. Between-groups differences were analysed in 20 measures of writing performance. TA was found to significantly impair only two measures, lexical diversity and nondysfluencies. TA may have constrained newly developed, still unstable thoughts that were perceived as peripheral, apart from its effects on fluency. Further analyses revealed differential effects. Those with high working memory capacity (WMC), especially high reading span, were most affected in lexical diversity, while those with low WMC experienced a significant decline in organization. The participants’ reflections in a follow-up questionnaire, analyzed inductively, show their diverse feelings about the effects of TA, its processing load emerging as the likely primary reactivity-causing factor. Results suggest that, although the reactivity of TAs is small, participants’ between- and within-individual differences should be duly attended to in conducting TAs in second language writing and writing research.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Chinese sentences for judgment in the RSPAN task

	按题目顺序判断(打 √ 或 × ), 有几个句填几格
练习组1	狗逗耗子 √	猫有九命 √
练习组2	螃蟹有壳 √	蝴蝶振翅 √	马儿哞哞 ×	蚊子有腿 √
练习组3	蟹有双钳 √	羊生四蹄 √	蝴蝶游泳 ×	蚂蚁吃天 ×	蚊子吸血 √	苍蝇传病 √
组1	狗依人势 √	猫咩咩叫 ×
组2	青蛙善跳 √	虾头长角 ×	狮子吃石 ×
组3	小鸡啄米 √	羊呱呱叫 ×	麻雀唧喳 √	乌龟长寿 √	蛇声如钟 ×
组4	马长鬃毛 √	驴脸很短 ×	虎啸山林 √	螃蟹竖行 ×	马爱歌唱 ×	鱼喜欢火 ×	乌龟有壳 √
组5	苍蝇能飞 √	鸡蛋有壳 √	虾善疾走 ×	鱼有五目 ×	虾生于水 √	乌龟跳行 ×	老虎吃鸡 √	牛汪汪叫 ×
组6	鱼能耕田 ×	猫善爬树 √
组7	猪啃白菜 √	鸳鸯戏水 √	羊飞蛋打 ×	驴会踢人 √	沉鱼落猪 ×	瓢虫化蝶 ×	青蛙两栖 √	驴声婉转 ×	瓢虫产卵 √
组8	狮子喵喵 ×	老虎有爪 √	母鸡打鸣 ×	猫爱吃鱼 √	羊长鸡毛 ×
组9	欢呼龟跃 ×	蜜蜂长啸 ×	如虎添翼 √	牛首是瞻 ×	鼠嘴巴尖 √	兔子豁嘴 √	鹅毛小雪 ×	小鸡抓鹰 ×	狼吃小羊 √
组10	雀飞枝头 √	狗摇尾巴 √	狮子出壳 ×	老鼠吱吱 √
组11	老虎飞翔 ×	麻雀吞象 ×	蛙食飞蛾 √	苍蝇采蜜 ×	马善奔跑 √	牛力气大 √
组12	害群之狗 ×	鸭子呱呱 √	蚊子啄泥 ×	鹿头长角 √	兔吃蔬菜 √	狮是猛禽 ×	鱼不离土 ×	兔跑得快 √	鹰击长空 √
组13	驴声唧喳 ×	蛇有四肢 ×	牛爱吃草 √
组14	虾能吼叫 ×	蚊子嗡嗡 √	蝴蝶学舌 ×	狗啃骨头 √	鸡飞千里 ×	牛长尾巴 √	老鼠钻洞 √	蛇身细长 √
组 15	虎假狐威 ×	狡兔三窟 √	蛇声鼎沸 ×	猫长胡须 √	蚯蚓钻地 √	蜗牛神速 ×	虾能吞蛇 ×	蚯蚓发光 ×	燕子筑巢 √	漏网之马 ×
组 16	麻雀食木 ×	鼠有百耳 ×	狗飞过墙 ×	鱼游水中 √	蛇能爬行 √	驴是害虫 ×
组17	鼠目寸光 √	狮子威猛 √	狗汪汪叫 √	驴耳朵长 √	青蛙长角 ×	羊爱吃草 √	蛙声滴答 ×
组 18	猪爱哼哼 √	蟹飞于天 ×	狗长象牙 ×	苍蝇有爪 ×

Appendix 2: Chinese characters to be recalled in the RSPAN task

	请回忆
练习组1	利成
练习组2	安如经没
练习组3	机知的所而此
组1	这明
组2	会物国
组3	在相全使同
组4	克或位向那因实
组5	别者现每受色把事
组6	作再
组7	何快金任男妈师变吃
组8	多和花许时
组9	交终林医制决传画运则
组10	先名问当
组11	光法年自些回
组12	远条呢始达完空求非
组13	定次后
组14	其并表但间员却好
组15	找罗欢吗约各即合论该
组16	西更拉应直字
组17	场报张至放关告
组18	英岁军往

Appendix 3: The main writing task

Title My father’s/mother’s/any other relative’s past, present, changes so far, and future (≥ 300 words, 60 min)

• 1. Describe his/her life in the past, for example, his/her birth, growth, schooling, work, education of you, love for you, or attitudes towards you (optional) (approximately 80 words), and then summarize or comment on his/her past or how he/she treated you (approximately 20 words);

• 2. Describe his/her life at present (e.g., his/her work, spare time, how he/she treats you, etc., optional) (approximately 80 words), and then make a summary or comments (approximately 20 words);

• 3. Describe his/her changes so far (e.g., concerning his/her appearance, state of mind, views, how he/she treats you, etc., optional) (approximately 50 words);

• 4. Describe (Imagine) his/her life in the future (e.g., his/her work, retirement, interests, health, attitudes towards life and you, etc., optional) (approximately 50 words).

Appendix 4: Scoring samples (* indicates where organization can be improved)

Sample 1 The main writing-TA task (Scored 11 for organization and 18 for content, participant 26)

In my family, my uncle John is my most respectable person. When he was young, his family were very poor. He always got up at 5:00 am, and got school 7:00 am. *He usually walked two hours to school. *It’s very cold in winter, and the door of school* was not open. He waitted with patience, at the same time, He read English very loudly. *He always told me not to waste time. He did it*. When he was a high school student, most of his classmates were out of school. Some were not good at study, Some were not able to go to school because they hadn’t enough money. Uncle John met the same difficulty. Because* lack of money, my grandfather didn’t want his* to go to school. But my uncle persuaded my grandpa. *When he was admitted to a university, he was just 16. He went to school* by train along. It’s the first time* to leave home. I think he is* brave.

Now, he is a teacher. In my eyes, he has knowledge about everything. I admire him very much. He is a good teacher, all his students think highly of him. Not only did he teach his students ademetic things, but also he care about their lifes. For example, he helps his student go to college with his money and his energy. He devotes all his life to his students and education. *He always told me, life is full of fun, Sometime when we pursue something that we think it is important, *don’t forget to enjoy life. *In the past time, he had opposite opinion.

He will retire after five years, *He plans to travel. *He always keep a good attidute towards the things that are bad in his life. *He never give up。*I learn a lot of things from him. *When I become a college student, he always gives me a phone. *I appreciate him Very much. When I am lost or confused, I always talk with him. Because of him, I can achieve my dream more easy and fast. *He is a great man. I love him.

Sample 2 The main writing-TA task (Scored 18 for organization and 27 for content, participant 14)

My father is 42 years old right now but he looks much younger. He is the man that I love most in this world. Everyone knows him would say that he is a very kind, helpful and mild man. So I would like to introduce him to you now.

My father was born in a very poor family in the country and my grandfather died when he was only eight years old. Evidently you can imagine how tough life he lived during his childhood. However, that experience also made great contribution to the change in his character, in other word*, made who he is at present. Because of his sad childhood, he tried every means to become a good father. In my memories, my father never shouted at me and never beated me. He just corrected me when I was wrong and detailed told me why I was wrong. I really, really have great gratitude for that.

After I graduated from high school, it becomes much more difficult for us to see each other. I know that my father misses me and so do I. Thanks to mobile phones and the Internet, we are still able to chat several times a week. For most times, he calls me. But once he knows that I’m busy, he won’t call me for several days in that he’s afraid of disturbing me, which evidently reflects his thoughtfulness. Since I am a college student now, my father always encourages me to be an independent adult and that’s what he did when he was the same age as me. Even right now, he still shoulders the burden of my family and I want to become a man like him someday.

Compared with past, he spares me much more liberty and does not push me that hard any more. Nevertheless, I know his request and anticipation on me has never changed.

Time is brutal. Everyone’s getting older, so is my father. Someday he would retire, he would not be that strong like now, he would even forget a lot of things. But I would always know his love for me would never change. Meanwhile, I prefer to believe that kind, diligent and wise people like him will be capable of arranging his life well. Yes, he will.

That’s my father, my beloved father.

Appendix 5: “The writing tips” section

让词汇闪光 (Let words shine)

在恰到好处的地方,准确地用上一两个别的同学可能想不到用的词,这些词就会像珍珠一样在读者的眼中闪光。 (At right places, accurately use a couple of words that other students may not think of. These words will shine in readers’ eyes like pearls)

• I looked at the huge sum of money, with ambivalent feelings. 我瞅着巨款,心情很矛盾。

• Their behaviour has occasioned us a lot of trouble. 他们的行为给我们惹了许多麻烦。

• His impatience found a vent. 他的不耐烦得到了一个发泄的机会。

• At a nominal price, the President’s son-in-law got the stocks. 象征性地给个价,总统的女婿就把股票拿到了手。

• Those dark clouds spell rain. 那些乌云意味着下雨。

• There was something furtive about his behaviour and I immediately felt suspicious. 他有点偷偷摸摸的样子,我马上起了疑心。

独到措辞 (Unique diction)

可以尝试着把新近学到的比较有特色的词汇,用来代替那些很容易想到的一般词汇。 例如,如果你写了这么一句话 “After drinking too much, he walked slowly in the street”…… 其实我们学过一个更形象的词,可以用来取代“walk slowly”,那就是“stagger”。这么一改,句子就漂亮了不少 (Try to replace those ordinary words you think of very easily with those distinctive words you have recently learnt. For example, if you wrote After drinking too much, he walked slowly in the street … In fact, we have learnt a more vivid word, stagger, which can be used as a substitute for walk slowly. With such a replacement, your sentence will be much more beautiful)。

• 我喜欢吃蘑菇,可惜吃了难受。

• I like mushrooms, but unfortunately, they will make me ill if I eat them.

• I like mushrooms, but unfortunately, they don’t agree with me.

• 他喜欢炫耀自己的知识。

• He likes to let others see how much he knows.

• He likes to air his knowledge.

• 公共汽车未停稳时,乘客请勿下车。

• Passengers should never get off when the bus is moving.

• Passengers should never alight from a moving bus.

• 我绝不会把他的任何一本书称为是“可以一读的”。

• I’d never call any of his books “readable”.

• I’d never apply the word “readable” to any of his books.

(From Write to Learn, 1st ed., pp. 22-25, compiled by Professor Zheng Chao, from Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, with minor abridgement)