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The development and testing of olfactory-based neurofeedback for the EEG alpha rhythm

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Abstract

This study presents the development and initial testing of a novel olfactory-based neurofeedback (NFB) system, utilizing electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings. Distinct from traditional visual or auditory NFB, this approach explores olfactory stimuli as the way to deliver NFB. The developed and tested olfactory-based system offers multiple opportunities because olfaction has strong associations with memory and emotional states and therefore can be a sufficiently strong reinforcing stimulus for both classical and instrumental conditioning. The developed system incorporates an EEG apparatus, an automated olfactory display delivering Sniffin’ Sticks, and a Python application for EEG-to-NFB signal conversion. We conducted a preliminary evaluation with fifteen participants split into the olfactory NFB, auditory NFB, and mock-olfactory NFB groups. The NFB represented the occipital alpha rhythm. We observed an increase in alpha power in the true NFB groups and a fatigue-related decrease in the mock NFB group. These initial results demonstrate the feasibility of olfactory NFB and establish a framework for this approach.

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The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

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Funding

This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation, Grant №21-75-30024.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. V. Zelman Center for Neurobiology and Brain Restoration, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia

    Alexandra Medvedeva & Daria F. Kleeva

  2. Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, HSE University, Moscow, Russia

    Ivan Ninenko & Daria F. Kleeva

  3. MSU Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia

    Daria F. Kleeva

  4. Digital Engineering Center, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia

    Aleksey Fedoseev, Artem Bazhenov, Miguel Altamirano Cabrera & Dzmitry Tsetserukou

  5. Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia

    Mikhail A. Lebedev

  6. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, Russia

    Mikhail A. Lebedev

Authors
  1. Alexandra Medvedeva
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  2. Ivan Ninenko
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  3. Daria F. Kleeva
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  4. Aleksey Fedoseev
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  5. Artem Bazhenov
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  6. Miguel Altamirano Cabrera
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  7. Dzmitry Tsetserukou
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  8. Mikhail A. Lebedev
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Contributions

AM, IN and MAL designed the study. AM prepared the software for the experiments and conducted the experiments. AM, IN, DFK and MAL analyzed the data. AF, AB, MAC and DT designed and constructed the odor delivery device. AM, IN, DFK and MAL wrote the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ivan Ninenko.

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Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing financial interests or conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

Ethics statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. The Institutional Review Board of the Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology (Skoltech) approved the experimental protocol of this study (minutes № 10 dated May 18, 2023). All participants provided written informed consent before the experiments.

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Medvedeva, A., Ninenko, I., Kleeva, D.F. et al. The development and testing of olfactory-based neurofeedback for the EEG alpha rhythm. Neurosci Behav Physi 54, 177–186 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11055-024-01580-3

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