Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Filling the Void: Spiritual Development Among Adolescents of the Affluent

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Religion and Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Building on both the spiritual development and affluent youth literature, the current study explores spiritual development and health outcomes in a sample of upper-middle-class youth. Exploratory analyses indicate long-term stability in religiosity and spirituality from late adolescence (mean age 18) well into emerging adulthood (mean age 24); specifically, a strong personal relationship with a Higher Power, that carries into the broader arena of life, appears to be the primary source of spiritual life in adolescence that transitions into young adulthood. Moreover, cross-sectional associations at age 24 suggest spiritual development may have important implications for increased mental health and life satisfaction, as well as decreased antisocial behaviors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2003). Manual for the ASEBA Adult Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J., & Applebome, P. (2011, December 1). Exam cheating on Long Island hardly a secret. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/02/education/on-long-island-sat-cheating-was-hardly-a-secret.html.

  • Ano, G. G., & Vasconcelles, E. B. (2005). Religious coping and psychological adjustment to stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 461–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2007). Emerging adulthood: What is it, and what is it good for? Child Development Perspectives, 1, 68–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Astin, A. W., Astin, H. S., & Lindholm, J. A. (2011). Assessing students’ spiritual and religious qualities. Journal of College Student Development, 52, 39–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baier, C. L., & Wright, B. R. E. (2001). If you love me, keep my commandments: A meta-analysis of the effect of religion on crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38, 3–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkan, S. (2006). Religiosity and premarital sex in adulthood. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 45, 407–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkin, S. H., Meier, M. H., Luthar, S. S. (submitted for publication). Childhood privilege and subsequent psychiatric disorders: A six-year follow-up of affluent youth.

  • Barry, C. M., & Nelson, L. J. (2005). The role of religion in the transition to adulthood for young emerging adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 245–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barry, C. M., & Nelson, L. J. (2008). The role of religious beliefs and practices on emerging adults’ perceived competencies, perceived importance ratings, and global self-worth. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32, 509–521.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barry, C., Nelson, L., Davarya, S., & Urry, S. (2010). Religiosity and spirituality during the transition to adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 34, 311–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Batson, C., Schoenrade, P., & Ventis, W. (1993). Religion and the individual. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, B. E., & Luthar, S. S. (2007). Peer-perceived admiration and social preference: Contextual correlates of positive peer regard among suburban and urban adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 117–144.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogle, K. A. (2008). Hooking up: Sex, dating, and relationships on campus. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botticello, A. L. (2009). School contextual influences on the risk for adolescent alcohol misuse. American Journal of Community Psychology, 43, 85–97.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyatzis, C. J. (2012). Spiritual development during childhood and adolescence. In L. Miller (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of psychology and spirituality (pp. 151–164). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braam, A. J., Hein, E., Deeg, D. H., Twisk, J. W. R., Beekman, A. T. F., & Van Tilburg, W. (2004). Religious involvement and 6-year course of depressive symptoms in older Dutch citizens: Results from the longitudinal aging study Amsterdam. Journal of Aging and Health, 16, 467–489.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Button, T. M. M., Stallings, M. C., Rhee, S. H., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2011). The etiology of stability and change in religious values and religious attendance. Behavior Genetics, 41, 201–210.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chase, S. A. (2008). Perfectly prep: Gender extremes at a New England prep school. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • David, J. A., Smith, T. W., & Marsden, P. V. (2007). General social surveys, 1972–2006: Cumulative codebook (National Data Program for the Social Sciences Series, no. 18). Chicago, IL: National Opinion Research Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, T. L., Kerr, B. A., & Kerpius, S. E. R. (2003). Meaning, purpose, and religiosity in at risk youth: The relationship between anxiety and spirituality. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 31, 356–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Haan, L. G., & Schulenberg, J. (1997). The covariation of religion and politics during the transition to young adulthood: Challenging global identity assumptions. Journal of Adolescence, 20, 537–552.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dew, R. E., Daniel, S. S., Armstrong, T. D., Goldston, D. B., Triplett, M. F., & Koenig, H. G. (2008). Religion/Spirituality and adolescent psychiatric symptoms: A review. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 39, 381–398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emmons, R., & Paloutzian, R. (2003). The psychology of religion. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 377–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, J., & Dell, M. L. (2006). Stages of faith from infancy through adolescence: Reflections on three decades of faith development theory. In E. C. Roehlkepartain, P. E. King, L. Wagener, & P. L. Benson (Eds.), The handbook of spiritual development in children and adolescence (pp. 34–45). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, H., Krippnew, S., Riebel, L., & Johnson, C. (2010). Models of spiritual development. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 29, 53–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furrow, J. L., King, P. E., & White, K. (2004). Religion and positive youth development: Identity, meaning, and prosocial concerns. Applied Developmental Science, 8, 17–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gunnoe, M. L., & Moore, K. A. (2002). Predictors of religiosity among youth aged 17–22: A longitudinal study of the National Survey of Children. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41, 613–622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halpern, C. T., Waller, M. W., Spriggs, A., & Hallfors, D. D. (2006). Adolescent predictors of emerging adult sexual patterns. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. (2013, December 13). ‘Affluenza’: Is it real? CNN. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2013/12/12/health/affluenza-youth/.

  • Hunsberger, B., Pratt, M., & Pancer, S. M. (2002). A longitudinal study of religious doubts in high school and beyond: Relationships, stability, and searching for answers. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41, 255–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C. N., & Boyatzis, C. J. (2006). Cognitive-cultural foundations of spiritual development. In E. C. Roehlkepartain, P. E. King, L. Wagener, & P. Benson (Eds.), Handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 211–223). New York: Sage Publications.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2013). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 19752012: Volume 2, College students and adults ages 1950. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

  • Jones, R. P., Cox, D., & Banchoff, T. (2012). Generation in transition: Religion, values, and politics among Millennials: Findings from the 2012 Millennial Values Survey. Retrieved February 25, 2015 from http://publicreligion.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Millennials-Survey-Report.pdf.

  • Kass, J. D., Friedman, R., Leserman, J., Zuttermeister, P., & Benson, H. (1991). Health outcomes and a new measure of spiritual experience. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30, 203–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kezdy, A., Martos, T., Boland, V., & Horvath-Szabo, K. (2011). Religious doubts and mental health in adolescence and young adulthood: The association with religious attitudes. Journal of Adolescence, 34, 39–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiesling, C., Sorell, G. T., Montgomery, M. J., & Colwell, R. K. (2006). Identity and spirituality: A psychosocial exploration of the sense of spiritual self. Developmental Psychology, 4, 1269–1277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, P. E., & Boyatzis, C. J. (2004). Exploring adolescent spiritual and religious development: Current and future theoretical and empirical perspectives. Applied Developmental Science, 8, 2–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knox, D., Langehough, S. O., & Walters, C. (1998). Religiosity and spirituality among college students. College Student Journal, 32, 430–432.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, H. G., McCullough, M. E., & Larson, D. B. (2001). Handbook of religion and health. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, L. B., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2008). Stability and change in religiousness during emerging adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 44, 532–543.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, H., Parkerson, G. R., & Meador, K. G. (1997). Religion index for psychiatric research. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(6), 885–886.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koplewicz, H. S., Gurian, A., & Williams, K. (2009). The era of affluence and its discontents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 1053–1055.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kosek, R. B. (1999). Adaptation of the big five at a hermeneutic instrument for religious constructs. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 229–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N., & Wulff, K. N. (2004). Religious doubt and health: Exploring the potential dark side of religion. Sociology of Religion, 65, 35–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krueger, R. F., Hicks, B. M., & McGue, M. (2001). Altruism and antisocial behavior: Independent tendencies, unique personality correlates, distinct etiologies. Psychological Science, 12, 397–402.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kwilecki, S. (1999). Becoming religious. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Labouvie-Vief, G. (2006). Emerging structures of adult thought. In J. J. Arnett & J. L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 59–84). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Langer, L., Warheit, G., & McDonald, L. (2001). Correlates and predictors of risky sexual practices among a multi-racial/ethnic sample of university students. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 29, 133–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lefkowitz, E. S., Boone, T. L., & Shearer, C. L. (2004a). Communication with best friends about sex-related topics during emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 339–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lefkowitz, E. S., Gillen, M. M., Shearer, C. L., & Boone, T. L. (2004b). Religiosity, sexual behaviors, and sexual attitudes during emerging adulthood. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 150–159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, M. R., Aldwin, C. M., & D’Mello, M. (2005). Religious development from adolescence to middle adulthood. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 144–161). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levesque, R. J. R. (2002). Not by faith alone: Religion, law, and adolescence. New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., & Baldwin, C. L. (2001). Gender differences in suicide attempts from adolescence to adulthood. Journal of American Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 427–434.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, A., Sharkness, J., & Pryor, J.H. (2008). Findings from the 2007 Administration of your first college year (YFCY): National Aggregates. Higher Education Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles. Retrieved February 25, 2015 from http://www.heri.ucla.edu/PDFS/YFCY_2007_Report05-07-08.pdf.

  • Loewenthal, K. M., MacLeod, A. K., & Cinnirella, M. (2001). Are women more religious than men? Gender differences in religious activity among different religious groups in the UK. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 133–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lund, T. J., & Dearing, E. (2012). Is growing up affluent risky for adolescents or is the problem growing up in an affluent neighborhood? Journal of Research on Adolescence. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00829.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Ansary, N. S. (2005). Dimensions of adolescent rebellion: Risks for academic failure among high- and low-income youth. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 231–250.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Barkin, S. H. (2012). Are affluent youth truly “at risk”? Vulnerability and resilience across three diverse samples. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 429–449.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Barkin, S. H., & Crossman, E. J. (2013). “I can, therefore I must”: Fragility in the upper-middle classes. Development and Psychopathology, 25th Anniversary Special Issue, 25, 1529–1549.

  • Luthar, S. S., & D’Avanzo, K. (1999). Contextual factors in substance use: A study of suburban and inner-city adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 845–867.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Goldstein, A. S. (2008). Substance use and related behaviors among suburban late adolescents: The importance of perceived parent containment. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 591–614.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Latendresse, S. J. (2005). Children of the affluent: Challenges to well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 49–53.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Markstrom, C. A., Huey, E., Stiles, B. M., & Krause, A. L. (2010). Frameworks of caring and helping in adolescents: Are empathy, religiosity, and spirituality related constructs? Youth Society, 42, 59–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAuley, J. (2013). The affluenza society. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/23/opinion/the-affluenza-society.html?_r=0.

  • McCullough, M. E., Hoyt, W. T., Larson, D. B., Koenig, H. G., & Thoresen, C. (2000). Religious involvement and mortality: A meta-analytic review. Health Psychology, 19, 211–222.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, M. E., Tsang, J. A., & Brion, S. (2003). Personality traits in adolescence as predictors of religiousness in early adulthood: Findings from the Terman Longitudinal Study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 980–991.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, M. E., & Willoughby, B. L. B. (2009). Religion, self-regulation and self- control: Associations, explanations, and implications. Psychiatry Bulletin, 135, 69–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara Barry, C., & Abo-Zena, M. M. (2014). Emerging adults’ religious and spiritual development. In C. McNamara & M. M. Abo-Zena (Eds.), Emerging adults religiousness and spirituality: Meaning making in an age of transition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Midlarsky, E., Mullen, A. S., & Barkin, S. H. (2012). Religion, altruism, and prosocial behavior: Conceptual and empirical approaches. In L. Miller (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of psychology and spirituality (pp. 138–148). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreira-Almeda, A., Neto, F. L., & Koenig, H. G. (2006). Religiousness and mental health: A review. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 28, 242–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray-Swank, N., Pargament, K., & Mahoney, A. (2005). At the crossroads of sexuality and spirituality: The sanctification of sex by college students. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15, 199–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, L. J., & Padilla-Walker, L. M. (2013). Flourishing and floundering in emerging adult college students. Emerging Adulthood, 1, 67–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newton, A. T., & Mcintosh, D. (2009). Is the cookie good or is it *good*? The effect of religious imperatives on opting for virtue. Presented at the Society for Personality and Social Psychology meeting, Tampa, FL.

  • Nkansah-Amankra, S., Diedhiou, A., Walker, A. D., Agbanu, H., & Clark, A. (2010). Adolescent suicidal behaviors, self-rated health and multiple health risk behaviors: Exploring new perspectives in suicide prevention research. Journal of Public Health Epidemiology, 2, 204–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nonnemaker, J. M., McNeely, C. A., & Blum, R. W. (2003). Public and private domains of religiosity and adolescent health risk behaviors: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Social Science and Medicine, 57, 2049–2054.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norenzayan, Α., & Shariff, A. F. (2008). The origin and evolution of religious prosociality. Science, 322, 58–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oser, F. K., Scarlett, G., & Bucher, A. (2006). Religiousness and spiritual development throughout the lifespan. In W. Damon, R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.), & R.M. Lerner (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (6th ed. pp. 942–998). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

  • Padilla-Walker, L. M., Barry, C. M., Carroll, J. S., Madsen, S. D., & Nelson, L. J. (2008). Looking on the bright side: The role of identity status and gender on risk behaviors and prosocial behaviors during emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 451–467.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patrick, M. E., Wightman, P., Schoeni, R. F., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Socioeconomic status and substance use among young adults: A comparison across constructs and drugs. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73, 772–782.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Peña, R., & Bidgood, J. (2012, August 30). Harvard says 125 students may have cheated on a final exam. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/31/education/harvard-says-125-students-may-have-cheated-on-exam.html?_r1/40.

  • Pichón, I., Boccate, G., & Saroglou, V. (2007). Nonconscious influences of religion on prosociality: A priming study. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 1032–1045.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piedmont, R. L., Ciarrochi, J. W., Dy-Liacco, G. S., & Williams, J. E. G. (2009). The empirical and conceptual value of the spiritual transcendence and religious involvement scales for personality research. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 1, 162–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Randoplh-Seng, B., & Nielsen, M. E. (2007). Honesty: One effect of primed religious representations. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 17, 303–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reboussin, B. A., Preisser, J. S., Song, E. Y., & Wolfson, M. (2010). Geographic clustering of underage drinking and the influence of community characteristics. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 106, 38–47.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Regnerus, M. E. (2003). Religion and positive adolescent outcomes: A review of research and theory. Review of Religious Research, 44, 394–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Regnerus, M. D., & Uecker, J. E. (2006). Finding faith, losing faith: The prevalence and context of religious transformations during adolescence. Review of Religious Research, 47, 217–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. N., Cottler, L. B., Bucholz, K. K., Compton, W. M., North, C. S., & Rourke, K. (2000). The diagnostic interview schedule for DSM-IV (DIS-IV). St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Medicine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salas-Wright, C. P., Vaughn, M. G., Hodge, D. R., & Perron, B. E. (2012). Religiosity profiles of American youth in relation to substance use, violence, and delinquency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1560–1575.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saroglou, V., & Fiasse, L. (2003). Birth order, personality, and religion: A study among young adults from a three-sibling family. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 19–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shariff, A. F., & Norenzayan, A. (2011). Mean gods make good people: Different views of god predict cheating behavior. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 21, 85–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shiner, R., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (2002). A developmental perspective on personality in emerging adulthood: Childhood antecedents and concurrent adaptation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1165–1177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C., & Faris, R. (2002). Religion and American adolescent delinquency, risk behaviors, and constructive social activities. Chapel Hill, NC: NSYR.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. B., McCullough, M. E., & Poll, J. (2003). Religiousness and depression: Evidence for a main effect and the moderating influence of stressful life events. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 614–626.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Song, E. Y., Reboussin, B. A., Foley, K. L., Kaltenbach, L. A., Wagoner, K. G., & Wolfson, M. (2009). Selected community characteristics and underage drinking. Substance Use and Misuse, 44, 179–194.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spilka, B., Hood, R. W., Hunsberger, B., & Gorsuch, R. (2003). The psychology of religion: An empirical approach (3rd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, A. C., Rappleyea, D. L., Fang, X., & Cannon, D. (2013). Emerging adults’ perceptions of acceptable behaviors prior to forming a committed, dating relationship. Journal of Adult Development, 20, 173–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Templeton, J. L., & Eccles, J. S. (2006). The relation between spiritual development and identity processes. In E. C. Roehlkepartain, P. E. King, L. Wagener, & P. L. Benson (Eds.), The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 252–265). Thou- sand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tisdell, E. J. (2003). Exploring spirituality and culture in adult and higher education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uecker, J. E., Regnerus, M. D., & Vaaler, M. E. (2007). Losing my religion: The social sources of religious decline in early adulthood. Social Forces, 85, 1667–1692.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United States Bureau of the Census (2000). American factfinder. Retrieved October 20, 2010, from http://factfinder2.census.gov.

  • Verona, E., Patrick, C. J., & Joiner, T. E. (2001). Psychopathy, antisocial personality, and suicide risk. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 462–470.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yates, T. M., Tracy, A. J., & Luthar, S. S. (2008). Nonsuicidal self-injury among “privileged” youths: Longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to developmental process. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 52–62.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yonker, J. E., Schnabelrauch, C. A., & DeHaan, L. G. (2012a). The relationship between spirituality and religiosity on psychological outcomes in adolescents and emerging adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Adolescence, 35(2), 299–314.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yonker, J. E., Schnabelrauch, C. A., & DeHaan, L. G. (2012b). The relationship between spirituality and religiosity on psychological outcomes in adolescents and emerging adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 299–314.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. S., Cashwell, C. S., & Shcherbakova, J. (2000). The moderating relationship of spirituality on negative life events and psychological adjustment. Counseling and Values, 45, 49–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaleski, E. H., & Schiaffino, K. M. (2000). Religiosity and sexual risk-taking behavior during the transition to college. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 223–227.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zinnbauer, B. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2005). Religiousness and spirituality. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 21–42). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Samuel H. Barkin or Lisa Miller.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Barkin, S.H., Miller, L. & Luthar, S.S. Filling the Void: Spiritual Development Among Adolescents of the Affluent. J Relig Health 54, 844–861 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-015-0048-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-015-0048-z

Keywords

Navigation